Some Significant Christian Thinkers

1) If we take a glance into St. Isidor of Seville’s (†636) essential work, entitled Etymologiarum, there can be recognized precisely the above explained Roman law terminology.¹⁰ Isidor frequently used Cicero’s (†43 BC) writings to his descriptions who made also influence on the contents and technic of the Decretum Gratiani (composed around 1140).¹¹ In Book V Isidor speaks about laws and times (De legibus et temporibus)¹² and gives precise definitions on classification of different forms and levels of laws (lex divinis, lex humanis, ius naturale, ius civile, ius gentium, ius publicum, etc.).¹³ His classification, which is rooted basically in Roman law sources, enlightens how the canonical system became more close to this technic since that time when the Decretum Gratiani was composed.¹⁴ It was not only used for distribution, instruction and interpreting the collected canonical material, but it has become part of the elementary canonical theory on law, preserving its “sacred” character.¹⁵

2) St. Thomas Aquinas (†1274) in his unique and fundamental theological and philosophical work, i.e. in the Summa Theologiae, dedicates extensive part to observe the meaning of law and its aspects. He speaks in I-II q. 90 in general sense on law (De legibus),¹⁶ then in I-II q. 91 he explains the categories of laws (De lege diversitate).¹⁷ However there we can find an independent Questio on

10 J. Oroz Reta – M-A. Marcos Casquero – M. C. Diaz y Diaz (dir.): San Isidoro de Sevilla, Etimologías (Bibliotheca de Autores Cristianos 433–434), I-II. Madrid, 1993–1994.

11 C. Cf. Larrainzar: La mención de Cicerón entre las «auctoritates» canónicas, in Revista Española de Derecho Canónico 71., (2014) 93–118., especially 107–109.

12 Oroz Reta–Marcos Casquero–Diaz y Dyaz op. cit. I. 508–565.

13 Etymologiarum 5.3: Ius generale nomen est, lex autem iuris est species. Ius autem dictum, quia iustum [est]. Omne autem ius legibus et moribus constat. […]. Oroz Reta–Marcos Casquero–

Diaz y Dyaz op. cit. I. 510.; cf. Etymologiarum 2.10 […] Factae sunt autem leges, ut earum metu humana coherceatur audacia, tutaque sit inter inprobos innocentia, et in ipsis inprobis formidato supplicio referentur nocendi facultas. Legis enim praemio aut poena vita moderatur humana […]. Oroz Reta–Marcos Casquero–Diaz y Dyaz op. cit. I. 374.

14 Ch. H. F. Meyer: Die Distinktionstechnik in der Kanonistik des 12. Jahrhunderts. Ein Beitrag zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte des Hochmittelalters (Mediaevalia Lovaniensia I/XXIX), Leuven, 2000.

15 Etymologiarum 5.8: Oroz Reta–Marcos Casquero–Diaz y Dyaz op. cit. II. 512.; cf. J. M.Viejo-Ximénez: Distinctiones. In: J. Otaduy – A. Viana – J. Sedano (dir.): Diccionario General de Derecho Canónico. III. Pamplona, 2012. 424–428., especially 425.

16 S. Thomae Aquinatis, Summa Theologica, Taurini-Romae 1940. II. 513–516.

17 S. Thomae Aquinatis op. cit. 516–523.

Legal Theory and Canon Law Considerations on Morality… 33

the eternal law (De lege aeternae),¹⁸ on natural law (De lege naturali)¹⁹, on the so-called “human law” (De lege humana)²⁰ and also its authority (De potestate legis humanae).²¹ St. Thomas’s idea on law is in harmony with that’s relation to the moral rules. Within this concept the eternal law which given by God is the source of morality, natural law, divine law and the positive civil laws.

Law is therefore a complex category as rule (regula) for the created world and regulation – internal or external form – of every relation and act.²² The Angelic Doctor underlines that the laws always have to promote the common good of the peoples (bonum commune). It is a moral obligation for those who exercise legislative power, applying the contents of divine law among concrete circumstances.²³ Dealing with the classification of laws, St. Thomas makes distinction regarding lex eterna, lex naturalis, lex divina and lex humanis. He particularly emphasizes based on St. Augustine that every level of law must lay on the divine law. That positive human legislation which creates law against the divine law is not able to bind the person in moral perspective, moreover cannot be excepted from the subject to follow this law’s prescription because it is against the nature of the human being.²⁴

3) St. Thomas Aquinas works gave a strong basis for the scholastic theory, improving the morality – divine law – positive law triangle for the Medieval Society, laying down those principles which had to be followed even by the secular legislator if they intended to gain the trust and recognition of the Catholic Church. St. Thomas made clear that the morality is that column of the legal system which is rooted in the Bible, in the Apostolic Tradition and in the teaching of the Magisterium of the Church, therefore it can be interpreted correctly only on theological basis. This entire concept had supported that legislation and law, jurisprudence and juridical actions must promote only one unique zeal which is the good of the peoples to reach the earthly and eternal peace. The 13^th and 14^th centuries are the age of the Papal universalism. The human society which had been divided for several political groups was recognized by the Roman Pontiff as a unity subordinated to the divine law. Based on this theoretical stand point

18 I-II q. 93 art. 1-6: S. Thomae Aquinatis op. cit. 526–532.

19 I-II q. 94 art. 1-6: S. ibid. 532–539.

20 I-II q. 95 art. 1-4: S. ibid. 539–544.

21 I-II q. 96 art. 1-6: S. ibid. 544–551.

22 I-II q. 90 art. 1: S. ibid. 513–514.

23 I-II q. 90 art. 2: S. ibid. 514–515.

24 I-II q. 91 art. 3: S. ibid. 518–519.

the popes were also intended to fulfill the political unity of the human society.

This is especially true concerning the promotion of the international peace.²⁵ The general idea was quite simple after the Gregorian Reform²⁶ – particularly the declaration of Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303) on the “Theory of the Two Swords”²⁷ in his bull Unam Sanctam on November 18^th 1303²⁸ – explaining the goal of the royal authority to promote the earthly peace by civil legislation regarding their subjects and the competence of the ecclesiastical authority to serve the eternal peace among of peoples. The common zeal of any form of legislation therefore was defined as a united purpose of these two structures of human society – civil and spiritual – which meant to do everything for peace.

4) A great professor of Salamanca, Fransisco de Vitoria (†1546) – who is recognized as founder of international law – testifies how inseparable the internal relation of morals, natural law and human legislation, including not only the positive civil law but canon law too. He wrote numerous theological, philosophical and legal – canonical works which make his interpretations indispensable even now, not only for comment of St. Thomas Aquinas eminent writing (i.e. the above analyzed Summa Theologiae), but thanks to de Vittoria’s works on De potestate civili (1528); De Indis (1532) and De Iure belli (1532) during the teaching of international law and legal theory, particularly the equal value of any citizen was emphasized to the university students.²⁹ Likewise, we cannot miss Francisco Suárez (†1617)³⁰ and his monumental composition on

25 W. Ullmann: A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages. London, 1972. 207–226.

26 Cf. Sz. A. Szuromi: Peculiarities of the conception of ’sacred power’ and its exercise between 1073 and 1303. Folia Theologica, 17., (2007) 261–270.

27 W. Ullmann: Die Bulle „Unam Sanctam”. In: Römisch-historische Mitteilungen. 16., (1974) 45–77.; R. M. Johannessen: Cardinal Jean Lemoine and the authorship of the glosses to Unam Sanctam. Bulletin of Medieval Canon Law, 18., (1988) 33–41.; P. Erdő: Die Quellen des Kirchenrechts. Eine geschichtliche Einführung. (Adnotationes in Ius Canonicum 23) Frankfurt am Main, 2002. 128.

28 Extrav. Comm. 8. 1: E. Friedberg (ed.): Corpus iuris canonici, II. Lipsiae, 1879. (repr. Graz 1955) 1245–1246.

29 R. Hernández Martín: Francisco de Vitoria: vida y pensamiento internacionalista. Madrid, 1995.; J. M. Viejo-Ximénez:“Totus otbis, qui aliquo modo est una republica”. Francisco de Vitoria, el derecho de gentes y la expansión atlántica castellana. Revista de Estudios Histórico-Jurídicos, XXVI., (2004) 359–392.; S. Langella: La transmisión manuscrita de Francisco de Vitoria. In: M. A. Pena González (coord.): De la primera a la segunda “Escula de Salamanca”

Fuentes documentales y linea de investigación. (Fuentes documentales 7) Salamanca, 2012.

121–131.

30 G. Cuadrado – J. Angel (dir.): Los fundamentos antropológicos de la ley en Suárez.

(Colección de Pensamiento Medieval y Renacentista 145) Pamplona, 2014.

Legal Theory and Canon Law Considerations on Morality… 35

De legibus in any time of interpretation of law and its relation-system to the European legislation and law instruction of the Baroque-time. His work finally has been published in a precise new critical edition between 1972 and 2012.³¹ 5) When Suárez speaks about morality, he is strongly convinced that any action has a moral meaning because it springs from the human intention which is getting be realized by an internal or external consequence. This process concerning its intention has some qualification – based on or against to the moral rules – and in its consequences also has this type of qualification, which can be again good or bad.³² Fransisco Suárez speaks about what is represented by law (ius). In the first chapter of De legibus he defines the basic meaning of law which is organizing the relations in order to promote justice and truth. He also expresses that this can be realized only through exercise the equity (aequitas). These categories are unimaginable without a well-trained moral sensibility.³³ Suárez considers that for justice and promotion the truth within the society is important not only to know the laws, but interprets precisely those norms based on the original intention of the legislator (mens legislatoris).³⁴ This is that instrument which can keep the unchanging contents and values of a good law among the altering external circumstances, as Suárez explains it under the title: “Qui actus sint necessarii in mente legislatoris ad legem ferendam.”³⁵ He keeps necessary for a legal system – civil or canonical – that it shall be in harmony with the created

31 J. M. García Añoveros: Las ediciones críticas del «Corpus Hispanorum de Pace» del CSIC:

contenido, obras y autores, metodología. In: Pena González op. cit. 269–288., especially 283–287.

32 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/suarez/ (consulted on February 21^st 2015).

33 F. Suárez: De legibus ac Deo legislatore in decem libros distributes. Napoli, 1872. I Cap. II 1–2: Quid ius significet, et quomodo ad legem comaretur: […] Prius vero advertere oportet, tres solera iuris etymologies assignari. Prima est, ut ius dicatur, quod iuxta sit […]. Si vero significationem attendams, iuxta esse non significet similitudinem vel aeqilitatem in aliquo munere vero actione, illud tamen est in sensu longe diverso ab munere vel actione, illud tamen est in sensu longe diverso ab aequitate, quam ius indicat […]. Secunda, et latinis magis recepta est, ut ius dicatur a iubendo; nam iussum participium est verbo Iubeo; et si a participio iussum secundam syllabam demamus, ius relinquitur, vel certe, si illas duas syllabas dividas, orationem constitutes, qua ipsum iussum seum imperium dicat, se esse ius seu ius sum. – 2:

Tertia derivatio est, ut ius a iustitia dictur; sic enim dixit Ulpianus […] Est autem ius a iustitiam appellatum. Quam etymologiam aliqui impugnant quia iustitia potius a iure derivatur, quam e converso; iustum enim dicitur, quod est secundum ius […]. Suárez op. cit. 5–6.

34 Cf. C. Esposito: ¿De qué ‚naturaleza’ es el derecho de Suárez? In: G. Cuadrado – J. Angel (dir.): Los fundamentos antropológicos de la ley en Suárez, 17–47.

35 I Cap. IV 1: Qui actus sint necesarii in mente legislatoris ad legem ferendam: Suárez op.

cit. 14.

human nature, must be understandable for the human intellect and through that can be formed the will to fulfill the good (I Cap. IV 2).³⁶