WRITING A PAPER
Basic studies
Seminar material for PhD Students
Erzsébet CSATLÓS, PHD
Public Law Institute
University of Szeged, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences csatlos.e@juris.u-szeged.hu
2021
2021
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F OREWORD
Dear PhD Students,
This edition is the summary of my part of the lectures of Writing a paper PhD course. It wishes to help you to deepen in the course material and see better the different technical elements of academic writing. It is a very basic guide for you on your path of writing your research materials and preparing your papers. It helps us to examine concrete cases and issues during the seminar .
See you at class!
Szeged, 2021
Erzsébet Csatlós
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Foreword ... 1
I. The process of research and its relationship with writing: the preconditions to have something to write ... 4
1. What does ‘research’ mean? ... 4
2. What are you doing when you ’do a research’? ... 4
3. From research question to a hypothesis ... 4
3.1. Start: research questions ... 4
3.2. Hypothesis ... 5
3.3. The role of the scientific method in formulating a hypothesis ... 6
3.4. Role of hypothesis ... 8
3.5. Formulating hypothesis ... 9
4. Fact-finding and literature review ... 9
4.1. Hierarchy of sources of information ... 10
4.2. Role of (legal) literature ... 11
4.3. Quality of literature and the trustworthiness of the information ... 11
II. Writing ... 13
1. Plagiarism and the ethical aspects of academic work ... 13
2. Citation ... 14
2.1. Standard elements of a citation ... 14
2.2. Citation style ... 15
2.3. Types of citation ... 20
2.4. Special citing rules: Legal norms and texts ... 24
2.4.1. International conventions and treaties: ... 24
2.4.2. International Court of Justice (ICJ) ... 26
2.4.3. European Court of Human Rights ... 27
2.4.4. EU law ... 28
3. Quotation ... 32
4. Using tables, and figures ... 35
5. Introductory signals in footnotes ... 36
6. Abbreviations in footnotes ... 38
7. Structuring a paper ... 39
7.1. The general overview of a complete work (paper) ... 39
7.2. Designing a paragraph ... 39
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7.3. Final check-up before you submit your work ... 42
7.4. Delimitation of some genres ... 42
7.4.1. Abstract - introduction ... 42
7.4.2. Summary - review ... 44
7.5. How your dissertation shall look like before you submit it? ... 45
Appendix I. Plagiarism Quiz ... 47
Appendix II. Essay models... 50
Appendix III. Introduction v. Abstract ... 53
Appendix IV. Summary ... 56
Appendix V. review ... 59
Exercises ... 63
Where to publish your articles? ... 64
Literature ... 65
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HAVE SOMETHING TO WRITE
1. What does ‘research’ mean?
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search: ‘re’ is a prefix meaning again, anew and ‘search’ is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles. Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable.
Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification, and interpretation of data.
Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference between our casual day-to- day generalization and the conclusions usually recognized as scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability, and general validity of latter.
Research is a process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information to answer questions by logical interferences drawn from the analysed facts. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical. Research is what we do when we have a question or a problem, we want to resolve. We may already think we know the answer to our question already We may think the answer is obvious, common sense even, but until we have subjected our problem to rigorous scientific scrutiny, our 'knowledge' remains little more than guesswork or at best, intuition.
The term ‘research’ has been viewed with mystique by many people. It is seen to be the preserve of academicians and professional elite. In most people’s minds, the word ‘research’ conjures up the image of a scholar, laboratory work, university, or other ‘academic’ setting. But research is simply the process of asking questions and answering them by survey or experiment in an organized way.
2. What are you doing when you ’do a research’?
The research is a process of asking a well-defined question(s), investigating, and then answering the question:
• Identify a worthy research question (well-defined question)
• Review what others have found (literature)
• Design and execute your research (question – raw material – method-answers)
• Conclude and presenting the findings (answer) = writing 3. From research question to a hypothesis
3.1. Start: research questions
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What do you need for research? An enquiring mind to recognize that there are questions that need answers. Every thinking person can do research. The fundamental requirement for research is an enquiring mind to recognize that there are questions that need answers. The quest for knowledge then is the basic idea behind the research. Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison, and experiment.
Formulation of a research question is essential before starting any research. It aims to explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern and points to a need for a deliberate investigation.
Research question identifies the problem to be studied and guides to the methodology. It leads to building up of an appropriate hypothesis.
• First, identify what types of studies have been done in the past?
• Is there a unique area that is yet to be investigated or is there a particular question that may be worth replicating?
• Begin to narrow the topic by asking open-ended “how” and “why” questions
Once a research question is formulated, a hypothesis can be developed. Hypothesis means a transformation of a research question is into an operational analogy. It means a statement as to what prediction one makes about the phenomenon to be examined.
3.2. Hypothesis
‘Hypothesis’ is derived from two words: ‘hypo’ means ‘under’, and ‘thesis’ means an ‘idea’ or
‘thought’. Hence, a hypothesis means ‘idea’ underlying a statement or proposition. The word
‘hypothesis’ is derived from the Greek, hypo (means under) and tithenas (means to place).
It is a proposition, condition or principle which is assumed, perhaps without belief, to draw out its logical consequences and by this method to test its accord with facts which are known or may be determined’. It is a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity by some of the scientific methods.
In its most elementary stage, a hypothesis may be a mere hunch, guess, or an imaginative idea.
A hypothesis, therefore, needs to be formulated in such a way that one can gather empirical evidence for verifying or refuting its correctness. It may prove correct or incorrect. But in either case, it leads to an empirical test. Whatever may be the outcome, the hypothesis is a question put in such a way that an answer of some kind can be forthcoming. If a hypothesis is empirically proved, the problem, which was tentative at the beginning of the research, is answered. The statement ceases to be a mere proposition. It becomes a verified fact. Nevertheless, such a disproved hypothesis may lead to an alternative or additional hypothesis.
A hypothesis or a set of hypotheses may originate from a variety of sources.
→ Hunch or intuition: It is a sort of virgin idea. The findings of such a hypothesis are likely to be unrelated to, or unconnected with other theories or body of science. They are likely to remain isolated bits of information. Nevertheless, these findings may raise interesting questions worth pursuing. They may stimulate further research, and if substantiated, may integrate into an explanatory theory.
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studies. If such a hypothesis is proved, it confirms findings of the earlier studies though it replicates earlier study conducted in different concrete conditions.
→ A theory or a body of theory: A theory represents logical deductions of the relationship between inter-related proved facts. A theory gives direction to research by stating what is known. Logical deductions from these known facts may trigger off new hypotheses.
→ General social culture Particular value-orientation in the culture, if it catches the attention of social scientists for their careful observation, generates several empirically testable propositions in the form of hypotheses.
→ Analogy: A proved pattern of human behaviour, in a set of circumstances or social settings, can be a source of hypothesis. A researcher may be tempted to test these established co-relations with similar attributes in different social settings. However, a researcher, when he uses analogy as a source of his hypothesis, needs to carefully appreciate the theoretical framework in which the analogy was drawn and its relevancy in his new frame of reference.
→ Personal experience Some scientists may perceive an interesting pattern from merely seem a ‘jumble of facts’ to a common man. The history of science is full of instances of discoveries made because the ‘right’ individual happened to make the ‘right’
observation because of his particular life history, personal experience or exposure to a unique mosaic of events. His personal experience or life history may influence his perception and conception and in turn, direct him quite ready to formulate a certain hypothesis.
There can be no restrictions whatsoever about what can be hypothesized. For example,
• urbanization and urban lifestyle boost suicide rate
• broken homes tend to lead juvenile delinquency
• modernization and education among women lead to an increase in divorces,
• poverty causes criminality,
• unemployment among youths leads to violent crimes.
3.3. The role of the scientific method in formulating a hypothesis
The scientific method is loaded with logical considerations. It is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations.
The idea of science is to achieve a systematic inter-relation of facts. In the scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear. The scientific method is, thus, a method used by science. Science rests on reason (rationality) and facts. Science is logical, empirical, and operational. The scientific method is, therefore, based on certain postulates and has certain characteristics. They are: (i) it is logical, i.e.
it is concerned with proof based on reason, (ii) it is empirical, i.e. theories are rooted in verifiable facts, (iii) it is operational, i.e. it utilizes relevant terms/concepts that help in quantification and conclusion, (iv) it is committed to only objective considerations, (v) it pre-supposes ethical neutrality, i.e. it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct statements about population objects, (vi) it is propositional, i.e. it results into probabilistic predictions that can be proved or disproved, (vii) its methodology is public, i.e. it is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny, testing/retesting of propositions, (viii) it tends to be systematic, i.e. indicates inter-
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relationship and organization between the facts and propositions, and (ix) it aims at theorizing, i.e.
formulating most general axioms or scientific theories.
The scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic perspective, i.e. a method free from prejudice to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning.
The methodology is discussed during other courses, so here, there is only a reminder of some basic information:
The term ‘research methods’ refers to all those methods and techniques that are used by a researcher in conducting his research. The term, thus, refers to the techniques or tools employed by a researcher for collecting and processing of data, establishing the relationship between the data and unknown facts, and evaluating the accuracy of the results obtained: methods which are concerned with the collection of data; statistical techniques and methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained. In other words, research methodology is a set of rules of procedures about the way of conducting research. It includes in it not just a compilation of various research methods but also the rules for their application (in a given situation) and validity (for the research problem at hand).
The methods you use will define the type of research you do. The major aim of the research is to explore, to describe and explain which is, in fact, also the three stages.
Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Research Research
approach used Unstructured Structured Highly structured
Research conducted through
Asking research questions Asking research questions By using research hypotheses.
When is it
conducted? Early stages Later stages Later stages including the last one
1. Comparison of research stages (author)
The following major pairs may be mentioned but it is to be noted that in a high-level comprehensive research work all are in different percentages present.
Descriptive-analytical
Descriptive research focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of information collection. The researcher studies and understands the context in which the documents are written and then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it. This is the basis of all legal research. Analytical research is an advanced form of a description as it tries to solve a concrete problem by describing its legal background and by doing so, make analysation (usage of interpretation techniques) to answer it.
Applied-fundamental
Fundamental research, also known as basic research or pure research does not usually generate findings that have immediate applications in a practical level. Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to expand knowledge in a specific research area. This type of research makes a specific contribution to the academic body of
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phenomenon, and the philosophy of this type of studies can be explained as ‘gathering knowledge for the sake of knowledge’. Fundamental research mainly aims to answer the questions of why what or how and they tend to contribute to the pool of fundamental knowledge in the research area.
Opposite to fundamental research is applied research that aims to solve specific problems;
thus, findings of applied research do have immediate practical implications.
Conceptual – Empirical
Conceptual research focuses on the concept or theory that explains or describes the phenomenon being studied. The conceptual researcher sits at his desk with a pen in hand and tries to solve these problems by thinking about them. The conceptual researcher does no experiments but may make use of observations by others since this is the mass of data that he is trying to make sense of. The empirical researcher does the opposite.
Qualitative-quantitative
Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data and analysing it to conclude.
This method not only helps a researcher understand what participants think but also why they think in a particular way.
Quantitative deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data. It is used to answer questions in terms of justifying relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.
Quantitative data is all about numbers.
3.4. Role of hypothesis
It not only navigates research in a proper direction but also contributes to testing or suggesting theories and describing a social or legal phenomenon.
Role of hypothesis in navigating research Once a researcher knows what is his hypothesis is, he can easily make predictions about its possible answers or explanations and proceed further to seek those answers or explanations. A hypothesis serves as a sound guide to (i) the kind of data that must be collected to answer the research problem; (ii) how the data should be organized most efficiently and meaningfully, and (iii) the type of methods that can be used for analyzing the data.
Role of ‘tested’ hypothesis when it is empirically tested (or not), the initially assumed relationship between the concepts or variables becomes a proved fact. Once a hypothesis is established, it ceases to be a hypothesis. In this sense, a hypothesis also performs the following significant functions:
To test theories: A theory, as mentioned earlier, is not mere speculation, but it is built upon facts. It is a set of interrelated propositions or statements organized into a deductive system that explains some phenomenon. Therefore, when a hypothesis is ‘tested’, it not only supports the existing theory that accounts for a description of some social phenomenon but also in a way ‘tests’ it.
To suggest new theories: it is, however, likely that a hypothesis, even though related to some existing theory, may, after tested, reveal certain ‘facts’ that are not related to the existing theory or disclose relationships other than those stated in the theory. It does not support the existing theory but suggests a new theory.
To describe the social phenomenon: Each time a hypothesis is tested empirically, it tells us something about the phenomenon it is associated with. If the hypothesis is empirically supported, then our information about the phenomenon increases. Even if the hypothesis is refuted, the test tells us something about the phenomenon we did not know before.
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To suggest social policy: A hypothesis, after its testing, may highlight such ‘ills’ of the existing social or legislative policy. In such a situation, the tested hypothesis helps us in formulating (or reformulating) a social policy. It may also suggest or hint at probable solutions to the existing social problem(s) and their implementation.
3.5. Formulating hypothesis
It is not easy to formulate a usable or workable hypothesis.
A hypothesis should be conceptually clear. Formal definition of the concepts will clarify what a particular concept stands for, while the operational definition will leave no ambiguity about what would constitute the empirical evidence or indicator of the concept on the plane of reality. An undefined or ill-defined concept makes it difficult or rather impossible for the researcher to test his hypothesis as there will not be any standard basis for him to know the observable facts. However, a researcher, while defining concepts, should use, as far as possible, the terms that are communicable or definitions that are commonly accepted. It should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that it can easily understand all concerning and should not create a private world of words’.
A hypothesis should be specific. No vague or value-judgmental terms should be used in the formulation of a hypothesis. It should include a clear statement of all the predictions and operations indicated therein and they should be precisely spelt out. It helps to increase the validity of results because the more specific the statement or prediction, the smaller the probability that it will be borne out as a result of mere accident or chance. A researcher, therefore, must remember that narrower hypothesis is generally more testable.
A hypothesis should be empirically testable. A hypothesis, as, stated earlier, should be formulated in such a way that it should possibly be to empirically verifiable. It should be possible to deduce certain logical deductions and inferences about it. Therefore, a researcher should take utmost care that the hypothesis is not concepts or variables that are loaded with moral judgments or values. Such statements as ‘criminals are no worse than businessmen’, ‘capitalists exploit their workers’, ‘bad parents get bad children’, ‘bad homes breed criminality’, or ‘pigs are well named because they are so dirty’ can hardly be usable hypotheses as they do not have any empirical referents for testing their validity.
A hypothesis should be related to available techniques. A researcher who does not know what techniques are available to him to test his hypothesis cannot test his hypothesis. The ignorance of the available techniques makes him weak in formulating a workable hypothesis.
A hypothesis, therefore, needs to be formulated only after due thought has been given to the methods and techniques that can be used for measuring the concepts or variables incorporated in the hypothesis.
A hypothesis should be related to a body of theory or some theoretical orientation A researcher, through testing his hypothesis, intends to contribute to the existing fact, theory or science. A hypothesis related to a body of theory or having some theoretical orientation can only contribute to the development of science. A hypothesis, therefore, must be capable of being brought into the accepted body of knowledge.
4. Fact-finding and literature review
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Sources are the essential bricks of your research. Your works shall be built on basic sources of information (primary sources) and must be chiselled by other people’s works (secondary and tertiary sources) to fit in the existing scientific world while it contributes to its development.
However, when you study a topic (do the basics of research) and you write your research works (produce your results), the order of the sources is different.
When you start to explore the topic, you usually start from the tertiary to the secondary, and when you produce your work, you lay your fundamentals by the primary sources.
Primary Secondary Tertiary
Definition
The original source of information; raw data;
legislative text
Sources that analyse or interpret primary data and do not offer new evidence;
work that relies on primary source
Sources that compile data on a particular topic
Characteristics
Has not been analysed; first-hand observation; accounts of events; viewpoints at the time
Interpretation of information; review, critique, analysis.
editorials; film
documentaries, reviews of the literature
Collection of lists of primary and secondary sources; reference works, finding tool for sources
Examples
Interviews, speeches, database info;
newspaper articles written at the time (news); legislative texts; legal cases (judicial decisions; authority decisions); simple case studies, scientific journal articles, laboratory data; minutes of meetings, protocols;
original manuscripts documents; original research; photographs; religious documents;
technical reports; works of fiction, poetry, drama...
textbooks, commentaries, biographies
Encyclopaedias,
bibliographies, indexes, library catalogues, databases, SSRN etc.
Where to find books, monographs, Gray literature, scholarly journal, peer-reviewed journals
books, encyclopaedias,
monographs, Gray
literature, scholarly journal, peer-reviewed journals
textbooks, books, Gray literature, magazines, newspapers, trade journals
2. Sources of information for research work (author)
There is a fourth category, the so-called Gray (=grey) literature: these are source material(s) not available through the usual systems of publication (e.g. books or periodicals) and distribution, such as conference proceedings; data exchange; dissertations/theses; environmental impact statements; government documents and publications; market research reports; online documents;
oral presentations; technical reports; working papers, business/industry publications.
11 4.2. Role of (legal) literature
Although the most important basis of the research is primary sources, legal literature is important both as a primary and secondary source.
It enables you to:
investigate previous research and find out what’s been done before
consider theoretical frameworks
identify ‘gaps’ in existing knowledge to find out if your study is worth doing
determine/clarify/justify your research question/problem
select the most appropriate methodology
Importantly, a literature review sets the context for your study and provides the framework for interpreting the results of your study.
4.3. Quality of literature and the trustworthiness of the information
Research results can be published in various ways, e.g., as articles in journals, as research reports, dissertations, books. As regards journals, it is important to distinguish between scholarly, popular and other types of journals, e.g., trade magazines. There are many different publishers and various target groups. Especially the difference between a scholarly journal and a popular magazine is not always easy to determine at first glance or to determine if a trade magazine may contain scholarly articles. To determine the quality and reliability of a scientific publication you need to know if the document has been reviewed by other researchers to ensure the highest levels of academic merit, research value, quality, and accuracy. The publishing in the journal is usually preceded by a thorough examination, known as peer review, of the content and format of the article. The journal has an editorial board or advisory board, consisting of researchers within the journal's subject field.
These researchers review submitted articles and assess the scientific quality of the article. They evaluate the method, the observations, the conclusions, and the scientific theory approach. They assess if the author's conclusions are supported by the presented result and if they can be related to the purpose of the research. They also assess if the article is written in such a fashion that it is easy to follow how the researcher has worked to get these results. If anything is unclear the researcher needs to add clarification to the article before it will be accepted for publishing.
If the document has been examined by experts in the field for accuracy and research validity before publication, it is considered having greater scientific weight than those which have not been subjected to such scrutiny.
So, what may help to decide if it is a reliable source or not?
The text reports on or refers to the author's research.
The author aspires to give an objective, scientific presentation.
Statements beyond the author's research are confirmed by referencing the source.
The next question to decide is online or paper sources. Nowadays, for most of the sources it just a matter of format as many publishers have online editions or also have online available material in pdf in databases like HeinOnline, or Jstor, there is a choice of buying e-books, or old ones are scanned for better availability.
However, some other types of sources are only available online, like news events, blogs, Wikipedia, etc. It is important to filter the reliable sources of information and make a distinction
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seem to give us useful information). When you find non-journal format source on the internet, you shall always ask yourself the following question: is the information up to date/reliable? Also pay attention to the following features that will give you the alert that you should rely on other sources that the one in front of you: unknown author/ no connection with science; no sources/references/citation is seen; its style shows that it is for the people and not for academists;
the website is full of advertisements.
In the next chapter, the main topic will be how the sources shall be used and to create your publication.
13 II.WRITING
Writing of a paper/essay/dissertation is usually a later, if not the last, phase of research work;
however, before your start to build up the structure of your final work (paper), you already start writing, taking notes, drawing up ideas, etc. So, the structure of your paper (dissertation) is continuously formulating before it reaches its final shape. By the way, this is the reason why the introduction is usually getting its final content in the last phase of the work.
Therefore, first, let us see what you shall bear in mind when you start working on your paper (dissertation) and later, it will be explored how you shall put the pieces together!
1. Plagiarism and the ethical aspects of academic work
Many people think of plagiarism as copying another's work or borrowing someone else's original ideas by performing the following acts either deliberately or accidentally:
• stealing and passing off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own
• using (another's production) without crediting the source
• committing literary theft
• presenting as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source
• turning in someone else's work as your own
• copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
• failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
• giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
• changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving credit
• copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up most of your work, whether you give credit or not (see our section on "fair use" rules)
Most cases of plagiarism, especially the accidental ones, can be avoided by correctly citing sources. Simply acknowledging that certain material has been borrowed and providing your audience with the information necessary to find that source is usually enough to prevent plagiarism.
3. Source: https://hu.pinterest.com/plagtracker/why-students-plagiarize/
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How to avoid plagiarism? Each scientific are has its typical source of research, but most of the time, the books, paper articles are the main sources.
The ‘Decalogue’ of citing sources are.
All quotes you have in your text shall be reproduced verbatim from each primary source
All quotations shall be marked as quotations
Each source shall correspond to a complete reference in the bibliography
You shall - as far as possible - replace quote with a paraphrase, still with a clear indication of the source
Illustrations - make sure that
o you are allowed to use the illustrations you want o You are allowed to use them as you intend to do To avoid plagiarism,
Always cite every source no matter if already note down the sources during the prewriting process citing it directly or with own words!
Do not “copy & paste” text segments. Do not copy text segments or paragraphs without assigning them to the original author´s work!
Quote exact wording only if the specific words are very significant! Exactly quoted wording must always be in quotation marks (”…”)!
Never let someone else write a Thesis for you!
Consider correct citation styles!
Check your knowledge with a test of multiple choices in Appendix I!
2. Citation
Citations are a way to identify a published work, whether it is a written document or artwork.
There are many reasons why it's important to cite the sources used in your research:
• To be responsible and credit other researchers and acknowledge their ideas
• To let your reader know that you have conducted proper research
• To avoid plagiarism
• To provide the information your reader needs to track down the sources you used By using references, you show that at you can find and evaluate appropriate sources and support your arguments with facts and ideas from credible sources. Referencing adds weight to your argument and helps you avoid plagiarism.
2.1. Standard elements of a citation
Citations include standard elements, as well as the information necessary to track down publications. Standard elements are:
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author name(s)
titles of books, articles, and journals
date of publication
city of publication
page numbers
volume and issue numbers (for articles)
The URL address for internet sources and date of access (if it has no other distinctive character listed above)
You don’t have to refer to common knowledge: if most people would know the information without looking it up, it is considered “common knowledge,” but cite it if you’re not sure.
P. e.x. The sky is blue – no citation is needed; but: any scientific data on the sky- needs a reference or mass-energy equivalence formula (E = mc2). As this equation is widely known, there is no need to cite Albert Einstein’s original research in which he developed the equation.
2.2. Citation style
There are many different style manuals, and each has different rules for the style of writing, citation, and overall format used in a paper. [In Hungary, there is no generally accepted, obligatory style; each forum has its guidance for authors] Citations may look different, depending on which citation style you are using but the main content is always the same that aims the full traceability of the source.
So, you may see a colourful variation of solutions for:
the order of information
o date of publication, name-surname, information on place and printing house,
the mode of separation of the information elements [dot (.); semicolon (;) comma (,)]
the font of the names (H.C. Lodge or H.C.LODGE)
the possibility of usage of abbreviations or everything shall be written out o Oxford University Press or OUP
o Henry Cabot Lodge or H.C. Lodge
the number of authors allowed: only the first/2 authors are allowed + et al. or all of them o Smith, A. et al.:….: or
o Smith, A.- Taylor, K. – Jones, B. – Austen, J.:….
in case of journals: the format of volume and issue:
o Vol. 21. No. 3. 2018 or o 21 (2018) 3 or
o 21(3) 2018
usage of formation (italics, ‘…’, “…”) for titles, journal titles (see: Oxford-style)
additional information:
o the number of editions [3rd ed.]
o translated works, if the edition was issued as a translation, translated by…
Hugo Grotius: De Jure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres. Translated by Francis W. Kelsey, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1925.
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In the USA, the most widely expanded styles are the APA, MLA and Chicago.
➢ MLA (Modern Language Association) is for arts and humanities.
➢ APA (American Psychological Association) is designed for technical works found in social sciences.
➢ The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) is most commonly used by those working in literature, history, and the arts.
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4. The difference between APA and MLA styles. Source: https://www.bibliography.com/mla/apa-vs-mla-citation-page/
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5. Chicago Manual of Style - examples. Source https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html
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In the UK, it is Oxford Style (OSCOLA - Oxford University Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities)
6. Source: https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxlaw/oscola_4th_edn_hart_2012quickreferenceguide.pdf
20 2.3. Types of citation
Footnotes: are listed at the bottom of the page on which a citation is made. A numeral is placed in the text to indicate the cited work and again at the bottom of the page in front of the footnote.
A footnote lists the author, title of work, date, etc. What you include depends on the citation style.
Citation styles using footnotes: Chicago A, OSCOLA, Turabian, ACS
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7. Example for footnotes. Fragment from: Mayeur, Coralie: Le pouvoir des États membres en matière de sécurité et défense commune dans l’Union européenne. Jurisdoctoria n° 5, 2010. pp. 88-111.
Endnotes: the same as footnotes just the notes are enlisted at the end of the chapter or the end of the whole work. Citation styles using endnotes: Vancouver, IEEE, AMA, NLM, AAA, ABNT
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8. Example for endnotes. Fragment from: Koldo Unceta, Unai Villena, Irati Labaien: The Municipalities' Decentralized Cooperation: The Case of the Basque Country. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 1, No. 5, 2015, pp. 470-479.
In text-citation (Harvard style): briefly identifies the source of information in the body text. The amount of information given in the parenthetic (name, year, page number like in Chicago style or just name and year APA and MLA style) depends on the style you use.
They correspond to a full reference entry at the end of your paper.
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9. Example for in-text citation. Fragement from: Csatlós, Erzsébet: EU ETD: Towards a New Chapter in EU Citizens’ Rights and a Better Administrative Cooperation. International Law Review, 10 (2) 2019. pp. 60-81.
The in-text citation can be placed in parentheses or naturally integrated into a sentence.
• Parenthetical: There is a correlation between social media usage and anxiety symptoms in teenagers (Parker, 2019).
• Narrative: Parker (2019) found a correlation between social media usage and anxiety symptoms in teenagers.
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Even if your citation style uses parenthetical citation instead of footnotes, you might choose to include footnotes to provide the reader with supplementary information.
2.4. Special citing rules: Legal norms and texts
Each country has its style and format of naming their legislative texts and public documents. The main rule is to be as transparent and traceable as possible.
However, the reference to international documents and some prominent international organisations or judicial forum has developed their structure of referring to their documents. here are some examples.
2.4.1. International conventions and treaties:
The international conventions and treaties are cited by
their title,
the place and date of conclusion
Reference to treaty series in the following order of preference:
United Nations Treaty Series (U.N.T.S. or UNTS)
League of Nations Treaty Series (L.N.T.S./LNTS– before the UNTS);
Official treaty series of a state involved (e.g. Canada Treaty Series (Can. T.S.),
United Kingdom Treaty Series (U.K.T.S./UKTS)
Other sources of international treaties (e.g. International Legal Materials (I.L.M.
or ILM)
Additional information may be provided at the end of the citation, e.g.
✓ the names of the parties to a multilateral treaty,
✓ the date of entry into force,
✓ the number of ratifications, and
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✓ the status of particular countries;
✓ declarative normative acts of a particular country (dualist countries)
✓ popular name [GATT; NAFTA; ICCPR; ECHR…]
The UNTS reference is the generally accepted and most widely expanded form of referring to an international agreement or treaty notified to the Secretary-General of the UN.
For example,
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 18/04/1961, Vienna, 500 UNTS 95.
Where 500 is the volume number of UNTS and 95 is the number of the page where the convention text starts.
See further examples for citing international agreements below.
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10. References to international agreements. Examples taken from: Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation. 6th edition Excepts provided for the benefit of participants in the “The Philip C. Jessup International Law Moot Court Competition” McGill
Law Journal. Thomson – Carswell, Toronto, 2006. p. 15 (E-127).
As for non-convention documents of an international organization, you shall add as much information as you can read on it:
the name of the organization and its body (if there is any, like the United Nations Security Council – UN SC)
the title of the document
the session when it was adopted
official publication (if there is any)
year of publication
article/point/paragraph
2.4.2. International Court of Justice (ICJ)
The documents contain the mode of their official citation including the page number in the Recueil/Reports.
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11. Official citation of ICJ cases. Source: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/homepage.html?locale=en
2.4.3. European Court of Human Rights
The HUDOC database provides access to the case-law of the Court (Grand Chamber, Chamber and Committee judgments and decisions, communicated cases, advisory opinions and legal summaries from the Case-Law Information Note), the European Commission of Human Rights (decisions and reports) and the Committee of Ministers (resolutions).
From 1 November 1998, the Reports of Judgments and Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights contain a selection of judgments delivered and decisions adopted after the entry into force of Protocol No. 11 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. All judgments and decisions of the Court (except for decisions taken by committees of three judges under Article 28 of the Convention), including those not published in this series, are available in the Court’s case-law database (HUDOC) which is accessible via the Court’s website (http://www.echr.coe.int).
The form of citation for judgments and decisions published in this series from 1 November 1998 to the end of 2007 follows the pattern:
name of the case (in italics), the application number, paragraph number (for judgments), an abbreviation of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), year and number of the volume.
p. ex. Campbell v. Ireland, no. 45678/98, § 24, ECHR 1999-II.
From the beginning of 2008 to the end of 2015, there is no volume number (e.g., ECHR 2008, ECHR 2009, etc.).
In the absence of any indication to the contrary, the cited text is a judgment on the merits delivered by a Chamber of the Court. Any variation from that is added in brackets after the name of the case:
“(Dec.)” for a decision on admissibility,
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“(just satisfaction)” for a judgment concerning only just satisfaction,
“(revision)” for a judgment concerning revision,
“(interpretation)” for a judgment concerning the interpretation,
“(striking out)” for a judgment striking the case out, or
“(friendly settlement)” for a judgment concerning a friendly settlement.
“[GC]” is added if the judgment or decision has been given by the Grand Chamber of the Court.
See more here.
2.4.4. EU law
The Official Journal of the European Union (OJ) is the main source of EUR-Lex content. It is published daily (from Monday to Friday regularly, on Saturdays, Sundays and public holidays only in urgent cases) in the official languages. There are 2 series:
→ L (legislation)
→ C (information and notices)
See more on the EUR-lex and the numbering system here.
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12. Method of assigning legal materials. See: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/content/help/faq/intro.html#top
Effective 1 July 2013, the electronic edition of the OJ (e-OJ) is authentic and produces legal effects.
The numbering and referencing of documents published before 1 January 2015 or in a series other than the L series of the OJ do not change. The only element affected by the change is the number assigned by the Publications Office; other elements in the title remain unchanged. CELEX numbers (document identifiers used in the EUR-Lex database) continue to be built in the same way, based on the components of the number assigned by the Publications Office. For more information on CELEX numbers, see http://eurlex.europa.eu/content/help/faq/intro.html#top.
Special cases
1. The new numbering does not apply to certain documents such as:
▪ international agreements and information on the date of their entry into force;
▪ corrigenda.
These documents remain unnumbered.
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Office at the moment of their publication in the OJ and a number previously assigned by the author:
▪ ECB legal acts and instruments, for example, Decision (EU) 2015/33 of the European Central Bank … (ECB/2015/1)
▪ Political and Security Committee decisions, for example, Political and Security Committee Decision (CFSP) 2015/258 … (EUBAM Libya/1/2015)
The number assigned by the Publications Office to the following documents will not contain the domain element and will be placed at the end of the title in square brackets:
▪ acts adopted by bodies created by international agreements, for example, Decision No 2/2015 of the ACP–EU Committee of Ambassadors … [2015/45]
▪ acts adopted within the framework of the European Economic Area (EEA), for example, Decision of the EEA Joint Committee No 58/2015 … [2015/100]
▪ acts adopted within the framework of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), for example, Decision of the EFTA Surveillance Authority No 02/10/COL … [2015/101]
▪ regulations of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE), for example, Regulation No 28 of the Economic Commission for Europe of the United Nations (UN/ECE) … [2015/46]
a) Method of citing EU legal sources: OJ via EUR-lex
Check the website of the EU: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/homepage.html?locale=en
13. EUR-Lex. Opening page. Source: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/homepage.html?locale=en
b) Method of citing caselaw: ECLI via EUR-lex
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A European Case-Law Identifier (ECLI) is intended to provide an unambiguous reference to both national and European case-law and to define a minimum set of uniform metadata for case-law. It thus facilitates the consultation and citation of case-law in the European Union.
The ECLI is composed of the following four mandatory elements, in addition to the prefix ‘ECLI’:
• the code corresponding to the Member State of the court or tribunal concerned or to the European Union where it is an EU Court;
• the abbreviation corresponding to the court or tribunal which delivered the decision;
• the year of the decision;
• an ordinal number of a maximum of 25 alphanumeric characters, in a format decided by each Member State or by the supranational court or tribunal concerned. The ordinal number may not contain any punctuation marks other than full stops (‘.’) or colons (‘:’), the latter separating the components of an ECLI.
Following the recommendation of the Council that the Court of Justice of the European Union adopts the European Case-Law Identifier system, the Court has assigned an ECLI to all decisions delivered by the Courts of the European Union since 1954 and to the Opinions and Views of the Advocates General.1
For example, the ECLI of the judgment of the Court of Justice of 12 July 2005, Schempp (C-403/03), is: ‘EU: C:2005:446’.
This is broken down as follows:
• ‘EU’ indicates that it is a decision delivered by one of the Courts of the European Union (for decisions of national courts or tribunals, the code corresponding to the relevant Member State will appear instead of ‘EU’);
• ‘C’ indicates that this decision was delivered by the Court of Justice (decisions delivered by the General Court would be indicated by the letter ‘T’ and those of the Civil Service Tribunal by ‘F’);
• ‘2005’ indicates that the decision was delivered in 2005;
• ‘446’ indicates that it is the 446th ECLI assigned in respect of the year in question.
The method of citing the case-law adopted by the Court of Justice of the European Union combines the ECLI with the usual name of the decision and the case number in the register. It has gradually been brought into use by each EU Court/Tribunal since the first half of 2014 and was harmonised as between the Courts of the European Union in 2016.
1 Council conclusions of 29 April 2011 inviting the introduction of the European Case Law Identifier (ECLI) and a minimum set of uniform metadata for case law (OJ 2011 C 127, p. 1).
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14. Explanation of CJEU referencing. Source: https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/jcms/P_126035/en/
3. Quotation
The primary function of quotation marks is to set off and represent exact language (either spoken or written) that has come from somebody else. The quotation mark is also used to designate speech acts in fiction and sometimes poetry. Since you will most often use them when working with outside sources, successful use of quotation marks is a practical defence against accidental plagiarism and excellent practice in academic honesty. However, the use of quotation shall be reduced to the minimum, most necessary level and where appropriate, otherwise, your work is a patchwork instead of own ideas. Paraphrasing and involving other ideas in your work with your own words is a better practice for most of the time.
However, there are some basic rules when you wish to rely on word-by-word use of other peoples’
work:
Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it at the end of the quoted material. The format of the quotation mark varies in different languages.
o In English, it is:
"The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes."
o In a Hungarian text it would look like:
„The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes.”
o In a French text:
« The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes. »
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Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete sentence.
"The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes."
Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece of the original material's complete sentence.
Although Mr Johnson has seen odd happenings on the farm, he stated that the spaceship
"certainly takes the cake" when it comes to unexplainable activity.
If a direct quotation is becoming a part of your sentence, but it was an independent sentence in the original work, you shall modify the sentence beginner capital letter and notify the change by the usage of […]
It was clear from this moment that “[t]he centre…of American jurisprudence has changed.”
Or vica versa, if the quotation is the first part of your sentence: “[A] mixed question of fact and law” must be appealable.”
In all the examples above, note how the period or comma punctuation always comes before the final quotation mark. It is important to realise also that when you are using MLA or some other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change.
When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the error exactly in your text. However, also insert the term sic in italics directly after the mistake, and enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to "thus," "so," or "just as that." The word tells the reader that your quote is an exact reproduction of what you found, and the error is not your own.
Mr Johnson says of the experience, "It's made me reconsider the existence of extraterestials [sic]." – extraterrestrials (spelling mistake)
If the original quote is too long and you feel not all the words are necessary for your paper, you may omit part of the quote. Replace the missing words with an ellipsis.
Original Quote: The quarterback told the reporter, "It's quite simple. They played a better game, scored more points, and that's why we lost."
Omitted Material: The quarterback told the reporter, "It's quite simple. They . . . scored more points, and that's why we lost."
Make sure that the words you remove do not alter the basic meaning of the original quote in any way. Also, ensure that the quote's integration and missing material still leave a grammatically correct sentence.
When you have a longer quotation (usually, more than 4 rows), it shall be structured as an individual block (new row, usually with some indention on both sides, so it is
distinguished from the flowing text), like this:
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15. Indent paragraphs. Source: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/word/word_indent_paragraphs.htm
If the context of your quote might be unclear, you may add a few words to provide clarity. Enclose the added material in brackets.
Added Material: The quarterback told the reporter, "It's quite simple. They [the other team] played a better game, scored more points, and that's why we lost."
Use single quotation marks to enclose quotes within another quotation.
The reporter told me, "When I interviewed the quarterback, he said they simply 'played a better game.'"
Quotation marks may additionally be used to indicate words used ironically or with some reservation.
The great march of "progress" has left millions impoverished and hungry.
Do not use quotation marks for words used as words themselves. In this case, you should use italics.
The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of colour."
Never forget to give the reference to the source of your quotation (footnote/endnote/in- text citation)!
35 4. Using tables, and figures
Visual material such as tables and figures can be used quickly and efficiently to present a large amount of information to an audience, but visuals must be used to assist communication, not to use up space, or disguise marginally significant results behind a screen of complicated statistics.
Ask yourself this question first: Is the table or figure necessary? For example, it is better to present simple descriptive statistics in the text, not in a table.
Because tables and figures supplement the text,
refer in the text to all tables and figures used and
explain what the reader should look for when using the table or figure. Focus only on the important point the reader should draw from them and leave the details for the reader to examine on their
number all tables sequentially as you refer to them in the text (Table 1, Table 2, etc.), likewise for figures (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). Abbreviations, terminology, and probability level values must be consistent across tables and figures in the same article. Likewise, formats, titles, and headings must be consistent. The format, the order and placing of information (the title of the illustration, source of the illustration) varies according to authors’ guidance and citation style.
if you are using figures, tables and/or data from other sources, be sure to gather all the information you will need to properly document your sources;
each table and figure must be intelligible without reference to the text, so be sure to include an explanation of every abbreviation (except the standard statistical symbols and abbreviations)
16. Example for using charts and figures correctly. Source: https://www.bibliography.com/apa/using-apa-figures-correctly/
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17. Example for art citation. Source: https://aut.ac.nz.libguides.com/APA7th/figures
5. Introductory signals in footnotes
Citation signals/introductory signals help a reader to discern meaning or usefulness of a reference when the reference itself provides inadequate information. An introductory signal is
appropriate to explain the logical relationship between the source cited and the proposition stated in the text.
useful to help the researcher to show his/her preparedness in the topic by invoking that information and sources that are not directly linking to the argumentation in the main text although they serve as significant supplementary sources.
Here is a compilation to show the different introductory signal and how they can make an additional layer to the main text’s argumentation:
Introductory signals o No signal o e.g., o Accord o See o See also
Signals indicating comparison o Compare; cf.
Signals indicating contradiction o Contra
o But see o But cf.
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A signal indicating background material o See generally
The starting point is a case: Apar Aerospace Ltd. v. American Mobile Satellite Corp., 2002 SCC 78, [2002] 4 S.C.R. 205. [hereinafter: Spar]2
2 The examples taken from: Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation. 6th edition Excepts provided for the benefit of participants in the “The Philip C. Jessup International Law Moot Court Competition” McGill Law Journal.
Thomson – Carswell, Toronto, 2006. p. 7-8. (E-5-6).
38 6. Abbreviations in footnotes
The first time you cite a work in your paper you should provide a complete citation for the work in a footnote or endnote. Subsequent citations may use ibid or supra
Ibid: Abbreviation for Latin word ibidem meaning “in the same place.” Use ibid when referring to the same source as in the immediately preceding reference. Ibid may be used after a supra, or even after another ibid.
Supra: Latin word meaning “above.” Use supra when referring to a source for which you have already provided a full citation (but not the immediately preceding citation).
1. R v Sharpe, 2001 SCC 2 at para 25 [Sharpe].
2. Ibid at para 26.
3. Sanjeev Anand, “A Case for Upholding the Child Pornography Law” (1999) 25 CR (5th) 312.
4. Sharpe, supra note 1, at para 26.
5. Anand, supra note 3, at 313.
Short forms: You can make a short form for the source – for example, a short form of the case name.
→ Provide a short form for a source if you will be referencing the source multiple times, particularly if the title of the source is longer than three words. Place the short form for the source in brackets at the end of the first citation for the source, as in note 1 above.
→ For books and articles, simply use the author’s last name for subsequent references.
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Pinpoint citation: A citation is necessary to properly credit another source or to identify evidence you are relying on. In most cases, it is not sufficient to simply identify the source as a whole.
Rather, it is often necessary to identify the precise page or paragraph number of the source that you are relying on. This is called a pinpoint. The format for a pinpoint paragraph reference is demonstrated in notes 1, 2, and 4 in the example above. The format for indicating a pinpoint page reference is demonstrated in note 5 in the example above.
Note that “page” or “p” or “pp.” are not always written before the pinpoint page reference, but
“para” is used before a pinpoint paragraph reference.
Avoiding repetition: It is not necessary to repeat information provided in the text in the citation.
For example, if the name of the case being cited is provided in the text of your paper, do not repeat the name in the citation.
7. Structuring a paper
7.1. The general overview of a complete work (paper)
18. Parts of a paper (author)
7.2. Designing a paragraph
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call it a chapter, sub-chapter depending on the lengths of the paper and the content. What your reader expects when he/she enters a new paragraph is that you declare a point and then offer support for that point. If you violate this expectation - if your paragraphs wander among a half dozen points, or if they declare points without offering any evidence to support them - then the reader becomes confused or irritated by your argument. A paragraph shall have an internal logic and ensure a comprehensible and coherent text of
exploration: what? (a topic sentence which is a statement (open question) related to the dissertation main subject) supported by
explanation: why?
evidence (literature, empirical research result)
arguments in favour of the topic/against it [➔On the one hand, moreover, also, because, due to, for this reason, therefore, thus, furthermore, so, this is why…etc.]
methodological reference: depending on the topic of the complete work, if a paragraph contains empirical research that is a peculiarity of that single unit, then the unit shall contain the methodological reference, too (p. ex. the description of quantitative research if the statement is supported by numerical results of a database)
the conclusion from the result: what I learned by this paragraph about the dissertation’s main topic?
Whe you formulate a paragraph that is an individual part of your works, you shall follow the PEEL or TEEL method:
19. T/PEEL steps of structuring a paragraph (author)
T/P
• Topic sentence or point - Formulate a quesion or a make a statement and stick that as the focus of your paragraph
E
• Explanation and expanding the topic - explain you point/statement and make it relevant
E
• Examples and evidences- provide examples or evidences to prove your point and argue your case, clarify pros and cons, refute opposite claims and dispel any doubts
L
• Link - link your information back to the questuin and wrap
up your paragraph with a concluding sentence
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Paragraphs shall be connected; the subsequent paragraphs shall represent continuity in the course of paragraphs; therefore, each paragraph shall have a linking sentence at the end that refers to the forthcoming paragraphs’ topic.
You can also think of each item as a hamburger: it is not the same if any of the layers are missing!
20. Hamburger paragpraph. Source: https://www.siue.edu/~tkohler/Writing%2520a%2520Paragraph.html
See a very basic essay and two models in Appendix II!
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21. Final checking steps (author)
7.4. Delimitation of some genres 7.4.1. Abstract - introduction
These words are often used interchangeably, but they have slightly different connotations.
The introduction presents the background to your study, introduces your topic and aims, and gives an overview of the paper.
See two examples for the introduction and the abstract of the same article and try to make a distinction in AppendixIII.
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22. Introduction (author)
An abstract is a summary of a research or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a manuscript or typescript, acting as the point-of-entry.
It has obligatory elements that suppose that the works are already done (research is done, perhaps paper is written). Even though an abstract is quite brief, it must do almost as much work as the multi-page paper that follows it.
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23. Abstract (author)
7.4.2. Summary - review
Summary refers to a short restatement of the main points of an argument, paper, lecture, etc. and especially a restatement used for better understanding, easier remembering, or showing how points relate to each other. It is a simple recapitulation of the work; an academic summary is a shortened version of a text which gives the reader a clear idea about the main points in it.
You write a summary for most of the time for your work, but you may have to summarize somebody else’s paper (as an editor writing a concluding chapter for a collective volume, p. e.x.
or as a chair at the end of conferences)
When writing a summary, remember that it should be in the form of a paragraph.
A summary begins with an introductory sentence that states the text’s title, author and the main point of the text as you see it.
A summary is written in your own words, so avoid quotation!
