II. Writing
3. Quotation
The primary function of quotation marks is to set off and represent exact language (either spoken or written) that has come from somebody else. The quotation mark is also used to designate speech acts in fiction and sometimes poetry. Since you will most often use them when working with outside sources, successful use of quotation marks is a practical defence against accidental plagiarism and excellent practice in academic honesty. However, the use of quotation shall be reduced to the minimum, most necessary level and where appropriate, otherwise, your work is a patchwork instead of own ideas. Paraphrasing and involving other ideas in your work with your own words is a better practice for most of the time.
However, there are some basic rules when you wish to rely on word-by-word use of other peoples’
work:
Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it at the end of the quoted material. The format of the quotation mark varies in different languages.
o In English, it is:
"The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes."
o In a Hungarian text it would look like:
„The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes.”
o In a French text:
« The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes. »
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Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete sentence.
"The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes."
Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece of the original material's complete sentence.
Although Mr Johnson has seen odd happenings on the farm, he stated that the spaceship
"certainly takes the cake" when it comes to unexplainable activity.
If a direct quotation is becoming a part of your sentence, but it was an independent sentence in the original work, you shall modify the sentence beginner capital letter and notify the change by the usage of […]
It was clear from this moment that “[t]he centre…of American jurisprudence has changed.”
Or vica versa, if the quotation is the first part of your sentence: “[A] mixed question of fact and law” must be appealable.”
In all the examples above, note how the period or comma punctuation always comes before the final quotation mark. It is important to realise also that when you are using MLA or some other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change.
When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the error exactly in your text. However, also insert the term sic in italics directly after the mistake, and enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to "thus," "so," or "just as that." The word tells the reader that your quote is an exact reproduction of what you found, and the error is not your own.
Mr Johnson says of the experience, "It's made me reconsider the existence of extraterestials [sic]." – extraterrestrials (spelling mistake)
If the original quote is too long and you feel not all the words are necessary for your paper, you may omit part of the quote. Replace the missing words with an ellipsis.
Original Quote: The quarterback told the reporter, "It's quite simple. They played a better game, scored more points, and that's why we lost."
Omitted Material: The quarterback told the reporter, "It's quite simple. They . . . scored more points, and that's why we lost."
Make sure that the words you remove do not alter the basic meaning of the original quote in any way. Also, ensure that the quote's integration and missing material still leave a grammatically correct sentence.
When you have a longer quotation (usually, more than 4 rows), it shall be structured as an individual block (new row, usually with some indention on both sides, so it is
distinguished from the flowing text), like this:
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15. Indent paragraphs. Source: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/word/word_indent_paragraphs.htm
If the context of your quote might be unclear, you may add a few words to provide clarity. Enclose the added material in brackets.
Added Material: The quarterback told the reporter, "It's quite simple. They [the other team] played a better game, scored more points, and that's why we lost."
Use single quotation marks to enclose quotes within another quotation.
The reporter told me, "When I interviewed the quarterback, he said they simply 'played a better game.'"
Quotation marks may additionally be used to indicate words used ironically or with some reservation.
The great march of "progress" has left millions impoverished and hungry.
Do not use quotation marks for words used as words themselves. In this case, you should use italics.
The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of colour."
Never forget to give the reference to the source of your quotation (footnote/endnote/in-text citation)!
35 4. Using tables, and figures
Visual material such as tables and figures can be used quickly and efficiently to present a large amount of information to an audience, but visuals must be used to assist communication, not to use up space, or disguise marginally significant results behind a screen of complicated statistics.
Ask yourself this question first: Is the table or figure necessary? For example, it is better to present simple descriptive statistics in the text, not in a table.
Because tables and figures supplement the text,
refer in the text to all tables and figures used and
explain what the reader should look for when using the table or figure. Focus only on the important point the reader should draw from them and leave the details for the reader to examine on their
number all tables sequentially as you refer to them in the text (Table 1, Table 2, etc.), likewise for figures (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). Abbreviations, terminology, and probability level values must be consistent across tables and figures in the same article. Likewise, formats, titles, and headings must be consistent. The format, the order and placing of information (the title of the illustration, source of the illustration) varies according to authors’ guidance and citation style.
if you are using figures, tables and/or data from other sources, be sure to gather all the information you will need to properly document your sources;
each table and figure must be intelligible without reference to the text, so be sure to include an explanation of every abbreviation (except the standard statistical symbols and abbreviations)
16. Example for using charts and figures correctly. Source: https://www.bibliography.com/apa/using-apa-figures-correctly/
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17. Example for art citation. Source: https://aut.ac.nz.libguides.com/APA7th/figures
5. Introductory signals in footnotes
Citation signals/introductory signals help a reader to discern meaning or usefulness of a reference when the reference itself provides inadequate information. An introductory signal is
appropriate to explain the logical relationship between the source cited and the proposition stated in the text.
useful to help the researcher to show his/her preparedness in the topic by invoking that information and sources that are not directly linking to the argumentation in the main text although they serve as significant supplementary sources.
Here is a compilation to show the different introductory signal and how they can make an additional layer to the main text’s argumentation:
Introductory signals o No signal o e.g., o Accord o See o See also
Signals indicating comparison o Compare; cf.
Signals indicating contradiction o Contra
o But see o But cf.
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A signal indicating background material o See generally
The starting point is a case: Apar Aerospace Ltd. v. American Mobile Satellite Corp., 2002 SCC 78, [2002] 4 S.C.R. 205. [hereinafter: Spar]2
2 The examples taken from: Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation. 6th edition Excepts provided for the benefit of participants in the “The Philip C. Jessup International Law Moot Court Competition” McGill Law Journal.
Thomson – Carswell, Toronto, 2006. p. 7-8. (E-5-6).
38 6. Abbreviations in footnotes
The first time you cite a work in your paper you should provide a complete citation for the work in a footnote or endnote. Subsequent citations may use ibid or supra
Ibid: Abbreviation for Latin word ibidem meaning “in the same place.” Use ibid when referring to the same source as in the immediately preceding reference. Ibid may be used after a supra, or even after another ibid.
Supra: Latin word meaning “above.” Use supra when referring to a source for which you have already provided a full citation (but not the immediately preceding citation).
1. R v Sharpe, 2001 SCC 2 at para 25 [Sharpe].
2. Ibid at para 26.
3. Sanjeev Anand, “A Case for Upholding the Child Pornography Law” (1999) 25 CR (5th) 312.
4. Sharpe, supra note 1, at para 26.
5. Anand, supra note 3, at 313.
Short forms: You can make a short form for the source – for example, a short form of the case name.
→ Provide a short form for a source if you will be referencing the source multiple times, particularly if the title of the source is longer than three words. Place the short form for the source in brackets at the end of the first citation for the source, as in note 1 above.
→ For books and articles, simply use the author’s last name for subsequent references.
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Pinpoint citation: A citation is necessary to properly credit another source or to identify evidence you are relying on. In most cases, it is not sufficient to simply identify the source as a whole.
Rather, it is often necessary to identify the precise page or paragraph number of the source that you are relying on. This is called a pinpoint. The format for a pinpoint paragraph reference is demonstrated in notes 1, 2, and 4 in the example above. The format for indicating a pinpoint page reference is demonstrated in note 5 in the example above.
Note that “page” or “p” or “pp.” are not always written before the pinpoint page reference, but
“para” is used before a pinpoint paragraph reference.
Avoiding repetition: It is not necessary to repeat information provided in the text in the citation.
For example, if the name of the case being cited is provided in the text of your paper, do not repeat the name in the citation.
7. Structuring a paper
7.1. The general overview of a complete work (paper)
18. Parts of a paper (author)
7.2. Designing a paragraph
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call it a chapter, sub-chapter depending on the lengths of the paper and the content. What your reader expects when he/she enters a new paragraph is that you declare a point and then offer support for that point. If you violate this expectation - if your paragraphs wander among a half dozen points, or if they declare points without offering any evidence to support them - then the reader becomes confused or irritated by your argument. A paragraph shall have an internal logic and ensure a comprehensible and coherent text of
exploration: what? (a topic sentence which is a statement (open question) related to the dissertation main subject) supported by
explanation: why?
evidence (literature, empirical research result)
arguments in favour of the topic/against it [➔On the one hand, moreover, also, because, due to, for this reason, therefore, thus, furthermore, so, this is why…etc.]
methodological reference: depending on the topic of the complete work, if a paragraph contains empirical research that is a peculiarity of that single unit, then the unit shall contain the methodological reference, too (p. ex. the description of quantitative research if the statement is supported by numerical results of a database)
the conclusion from the result: what I learned by this paragraph about the dissertation’s main topic?
Whe you formulate a paragraph that is an individual part of your works, you shall follow the PEEL or TEEL method:
19. T/PEEL steps of structuring a paragraph (author)
T/P
• Topic sentence or point - Formulate a quesion or a make a statement and stick that as the focus of your paragraph
E
• Explanation and expanding the topic - explain you point/statement and make it relevant
E
• Examples and evidences- provide examples or evidences to prove your point and argue your case, clarify pros and cons, refute opposite claims and dispel any doubts
L
• Link - link your information back to the questuin and wrap
up your paragraph with a concluding sentence
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Paragraphs shall be connected; the subsequent paragraphs shall represent continuity in the course of paragraphs; therefore, each paragraph shall have a linking sentence at the end that refers to the forthcoming paragraphs’ topic.
You can also think of each item as a hamburger: it is not the same if any of the layers are missing!
20. Hamburger paragpraph. Source: https://www.siue.edu/~tkohler/Writing%2520a%2520Paragraph.html
See a very basic essay and two models in Appendix II!
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21. Final checking steps (author)
7.4. Delimitation of some genres 7.4.1. Abstract - introduction
These words are often used interchangeably, but they have slightly different connotations.
The introduction presents the background to your study, introduces your topic and aims, and gives an overview of the paper.
See two examples for the introduction and the abstract of the same article and try to make a distinction in AppendixIII.
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22. Introduction (author)
An abstract is a summary of a research or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a manuscript or typescript, acting as the point-of-entry.
It has obligatory elements that suppose that the works are already done (research is done, perhaps paper is written). Even though an abstract is quite brief, it must do almost as much work as the multi-page paper that follows it.
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23. Abstract (author)
7.4.2. Summary - review
Summary refers to a short restatement of the main points of an argument, paper, lecture, etc. and especially a restatement used for better understanding, easier remembering, or showing how points relate to each other. It is a simple recapitulation of the work; an academic summary is a shortened version of a text which gives the reader a clear idea about the main points in it.
You write a summary for most of the time for your work, but you may have to summarize somebody else’s paper (as an editor writing a concluding chapter for a collective volume, p. e.x.
or as a chair at the end of conferences)
When writing a summary, remember that it should be in the form of a paragraph.
A summary begins with an introductory sentence that states the text’s title, author and the main point of the text as you see it.
A summary is written in your own words, so avoid quotation!
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A summary contains only the ideas of the original text. Do not insert any of your own opinions, interpretations, deductions or comments into a summary which did not appear it the original text!
Identify in order the significant sub-claims the author uses to defend the main point.
Follow the table of contents or the chapters in order!
Write a last sentence that “wraps” up your summary; often a simple rephrasing of the main point.
You can see a model summary in Appendix III.
Review
a) is a report giving someone's opinion about someone or something." This is used in both informal contexts ("movie reviews") and formal contexts ("This policy is under review."). This sense of review is also used in the name of magazines and academic journals that are full of these sorts of opinions ("Law Review", "The Annual Review of Biology").
b) The second use of review refers to a class, lecture, book, etc. that is meant to give you a very broad introduction to a subject ("a review of 19th-century literature"). This use appears primarily in academic and formal contexts.
c) The third use of review is only found in American English and refers to studying information you have already studied before ("Do a review of Chapter 7 for the test."). This is the equivalent of the British word revision and it appears in informal and classroom contexts
Recension is the practice of editing or revising a text-based on critical analysis. When referring to manuscripts, this may be a revision by another author. The term is derived from Latin recension
"review, analysis".
7.5. How your dissertation shall look like before you submit it?
The dissertation includes the following obligatory elements:
Table of contents
Abstract
List of figures, abbreviations
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Appendix (if there is any)
Bibliography
Apart from the dissertation, you shall prepare a short version of the thesis of approx. 40.000 characters to show the main features of your work including the following information:
Abstract (1-2 pages)
Research questions of the study
A presentation of applicable data and methods
Results of your study and their discussion (~the table of contents of the body of your work)
Conclusions
46 what novelty do you bring to the legal literature?
List of your publications and academic lectures related to the topic of your work
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APPENDIX I.PLAGIARISM QUIZ
Which of the following are incidents of plagiarism?3
1. You are guilty of plagiarism if you:
a. Make use of the works of others to gather information.
b. Use the work of another and misrepresent it as your own.
c. Make use of the works of others to support your own arguments.
d. Examine the ideas and arguments of others to help you shape your own thoughts or views on a particular issue.
2. Drawing information or content from the work of another without acknowledging the source by citing a reference is considered to be plagiarism in all of the following cases except:
a. Using the exact words of the author.
b. Using data that the author has compiled through his/her independent investigation.
c. Using information from the author's work that is regarded as common knowledge in the discipline.
d. Reproducing in your paper a chart contained in the author's work.
3. Which of the following is not an example of "padding" a bibliography?
a. Including in your bibliography works that you consulted but to which you made no direct or indirect reference or use of in your research paper.
b. Including in your bibliography sources that you did not consult but know would be relevant to the topic of your research paper.
c. Listing the titles of complete works as separate entries in your bibliography when you actually used a single volume made up of excerpts from those works.
d. Including in your bibliography sources that you did not consult directly, but that were referred to in several of the books or articles that you did consult.
4. Paraphrasing too closely to the original text, even if you do credit the source, is still considered as plagiarism because:
a. By changing a few words or the order of the original words, you have changed the author's exact words.
b. By not providing the exact words of the author in their entirety, you are attributing to the author some words that he/she did not write.
c. You must never use the words of others when you are using their ideas.
d. You have failed to indicate, by means of direct quotation marks, which are the exact words of the original.
3 Source: https://academicintegrity.uoguelph.ca/plagiarism/quiz-plagiarism
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a. Because no one will know what works you consulted in the preparation of your essay.
b. Because a bibliography does not provide specific page references for the sections of your sources that you actually read when you were doing your research.
c. Because by so doing you fail to indicate the exact source(s) of each specific passage.
6. Information provided in your essay must be referenced in all of the following cases except:
a. When the information involves an interpretation peculiar to the author from
a. When the information involves an interpretation peculiar to the author from