Description of the arena in which change occurs

management, leadership, output, models, formula and diagrams and so on are rampant.

Since personal change is even more complex and harder to measure and assess, psychological research tries to identify the rules according to which people operate in order to solve a problem or introduce change for which other tools are needed for measurement and evaluation (Fox, 2004). A subjective approach is adopted in determining personal change in which change will be defined as such if those experiencing it, or other reasonable people⁶⁵ who did not experience change but were witness to it, note that there was change.

Change at individual level will only be defined as such if all the four following criteria exist (Fox 2004:28):

a. The new situation is not the natural and gradual result of change over time;

b. This, or a similar situation, was not common and routine in the past, and, from the psychological perspective, is a new and primary experience;

c. The difference between what occurred until the time of change and what occurred with the change is clear, significant and absorbed by a person's senses. Minute changes discerned only by measuring tools will not be defined by people as change.

d. The new situation is relevant to the individual's life and has direct or possible impact on them. The individual can define it as important and significant.

The society in which we live is a patriarchal society that stresses differences between the genders through 'social structuring' (de Beauvoir, 1949) lacking support from the inborn biological differences. Society defines women as 'different' or as 'abnormal' (since maleness is the norm, and in such a reality, no woman can operate outside the structures determined for her by society (Harris, 1987)⁶⁶. One of the strong social structures in western society is the power relations⁶⁷ and, with respect to this study, the power relations between the genders.

The change to be discussed in this study will therefore be change in the power relations between males and females.

Reality teaches us that the power relations between men and women are not equal at all levels of life - in the economic realm, the political arena, the social domain and so on. Men have an advantage over women, that reflects onto

• The way the women perceive themselves

• The levels of expectations of women of themselves and of society from them.

• Control of assets of all types

• Exposure to physical, emotional and economic hurt

The changes that occurred over the years in the female gender context did not generate change in the power relations but only added a few areas in which female inferiority remained. In other words, the changes that occurred were of the first order rather than of the second order.

Four strategies for change can be identified:

1. 'Equality feminism' – equal = similar, a key term coined by liberal feminists (Guerrina, 2001). The change in power relations will be achieved by creating a situation of equality between the genders.

This approach led to the perception regarding equating males and females and creating a woman with an achievement-success oriented character, the same as men.

Perceiving women to be the same as men means silencing their unique needs that were interpreted as a lack of compatibility of women to certain professions/roles and which demanded offering unique or suitable help for its implementation (Hughes, 2002; Liff

66 De Susaur believes that each culture has rules, and when a person grows up in a society and learns the use of concepts within these laws, he is not free to think outside the structure dictated to him. The structure theory creates a conservative approach that denies the possibility of change, apparently.

67 Power in its definitions: control: Influence (see section 2.3).

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and Ward, 2001). Their success occurred only when they behaved 'like men' (Dryburgh, 1999; Rutherford, 2001).

This approach saw the breaching of the boundaries of the home-private domain as the focus of change in the power relations between the genders.

Radical feminism claims, in contrast, that the source of inequality lies in the fact that we live in a patriarchal society, in which men control women through suppressing their freedom. In order to attain equality in the public realm (the employment market and so on) equality should be attained first at home.

One of the types of suppression that creates inequality is manifested in control of women's sexuality, and its harnessing to that home area through glorifying the role of motherhood. Limitations intended to preserve the right of male assets over women through sexual relations in the marital framework only and laws of purity. This domain received greater validation when women joined the labor force that breached the boundaries of relationships between the genders.⁶⁸

2. Difference feminism (Huges, 2002). Different in this context refers to alternative, maybe preferable to the existing situation.

Radical feminism asserts that there is no point in trying to attain equality within the existing social systems as they are 'male streamed' – a system based on hierarchy, aggression, competition and so on. Entry to the existing system is like cooperating with the patriarchy and therefore the effort was made to establish alternative organizations and systems for women only based on feminine values and culture.⁶⁹ Most women's organizations, courses and workshops with a focus on empowerment⁷⁰ function thus till now on the basis of this theory of a separate space for women, while coping with the question of the feasibility of creating change from 'outside'.

The psychological need for a definition of self-identity, an identity developing relative to the 'other' necessary for creating a feeling of belonging and social cohesion, is generated by its very definition, an attitude of hierarchy and lack of equality (Tajfel, 1978). This situation is manifested in the clear separation and creation of a

68 Radical feminism raises questions regarding sexual harassment, sexual aggression, incest and rape within the family, pornography, prostitution etc.

69 On the assumption that there is such a thing as feminine values, the meaning is one of cooperation, equality, mutual support, female empowerment. Systems established in this spirit include a hostel for beaten women, support organizations for rape victims- a separate area for women that operates according to other values and focuses on problems specific to women.

70 Several questions may be asked regarding this situation: Does separatism not create a type of female ghetto? The situation is perhaps pleasant for women but is disconnected from reality. (On the other hand, it has been proven that separate activity leads to positive important results amongst women and girls). Does separatism indirectly enable the continued patriarchy? And so on.

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'female' arena that positions itself as the opposite of the 'male' arena, which is identified by social values that are better from all perspectives than the female arena. Most women's organizations, courses and workshops with a focus on empowerment⁷¹ function thus till now on the basis of this theory of a separate space for women, while coping with the question of the feasibility of creating change from 'outside'.

3. Gender equality, or the 'needs approach' ( Rao and Kelleher, 2005) supports nurturing the concept of feminism as a definition that makes women unique compared to men, but does not position her at a lower social status because of this femininity. It further notes the need for striving for personal achievement, recognizing, in fact, the specific difference of each gender. Hence the situation in which women do not have rights as they are women cannot continue.

Women have needs that are different from those of men, but have an equal right as men to realize their unique needs. Men and women are equal but their needs differ. This approach focuses on the arena of personal change - female empowerment⁷²

The needs approach lead to the unavoidable understanding that just as women have unique needs, so do men and they differ from each other. Investigating the reality in depth leads to a second insight - that these unique needs are not necessarily manifested in the daily obvious reality.

These insights generated a policy of gender mainstreaming as a theory of change for the social-systemic aspect⁷³.

4. Gender equality, or the 'rights approach' (Rao and Kelleher, 2005) is based on the assumption that all human been are equal and the power relationships between the genders are manifested through negating women's rights following an approach that was based on stereotypes proven baseless⁷⁴. To correct this situation, extensive legislation was enacted that did not alter the types of basic thought of either males or females. In reality, difficulties were created in enforcement and ways were found to circumvent the laws while exploiting the loopholes, some of which stemmed from the clear lack of interest on the part of

71 Several questions may be asked regarding this situation: Does separatism not create a type of female ghetto? The situation is perhaps pleasant for women but is disconnected from reality. (On the other hand, it has been proven that separate activity leads to positive important results amongst women and girls). Does separatism indirectly enable the continued patriarchy? And so on.

72See the change diagram in appendix B item 1

73 It includes reorganization, improvement, developing and evaluating policy for including gender equality (=equal value consideration adapted to needs and recognizing the existence of the differences between the genders) at all levels of activity and at all organizational levels.

74 Women were not perceived as rational since they were considered incapable of making intelligent decisions and most of their actions were emotional. Furthermore, they needed to be protected.

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the legislators to honestly cope with the problems. The demand for rights by women is a political process (Ferguson, 1999) ongoing between stakeholders, power and knowledge, in other words, equal in value.

Therefore, the demand for change has dual poles:

a. Women will be aware of their rights and will develop tools to insist on their rights to realize their needs;

b. Society must develop the ability to properly formulate the rights according to the differential needs of women and men, and to develop a mechanism for their implementation (Jones and Gaventa, 2002).

The rights approach focuses on the personal and the formal arena (change in the municipal domain - see diagram in appendix no B item 1). This, and the 'needs approach' are at the personal level in both arenas, to be discussed as the arena of change in this study, one in which the mayoral advisor on the status of women has approval to act, from the researcher's point of view.