Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 79 ( 1990): 171 - 188 171 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands
Birth, life and death of the Pannonian Lake
M i k l 6 s K f i z m 6 r
Department qf Palaeontology. EdtviJs UniversiO', Kun Bbla tbr 2, H-1083 Budapest. Hungary (Received January 30, 1989: revised and accepted January 25, 1990)
ABSTRACT
Kfizm6r, M.. 1990. Birth. life and death of the Pannonian Lake. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 79:171 188.
The Miocene-Pliocene Pannonian Lake formed in an extensional basin system behind the compressional arc of the Carpathians. Its size and depth were comparable to those of the Caspian Sea. Subsidence began in Middle Miocene times, forming deep, pelagic basins, separated by reef-bearing ridges. Clastic influx filled the marginal basins during Middle Miocene time. Prograding deltas dissected the lake and completed the infilling of the basin system by the end of the Pliocene. Basin plain, prodelta, delta front, delta plain, beach, fluviatile, and marsh environments can be recognized.
Terminal Miocene uplift of the Carpathians isolated the Pannonian region from the rest of Paratethys. The subsequent decrease of salinity resulted in the evolution of an endemic, freshwater mollusc fauna. Rich nutrient influx from rivers supported high organic productivity (dinoflagellates, diatoms, nannoplankton, foraminifers, ostracods, etc.), yielding organic-rich sediments. Preservation of organic matter was helped by a stratified water column and oxygen deficient bottom conditions.
Deep burial, continuing subsidence, and high geothermal flux due to an extremely thin crust, led to the formation of commercially exploitable oil and gas accumulations.
Shallow lacustrine zones of basin margins provided suitable environments for a rich Congeria-Melanopsis mollusc fauna.
Wave action on beaches produced commercially exploitable pure quartz sand deposits. Taxodium and Alnus forests flourished around the lake producing enormous lignite deposits. Besides a rich land snail and mammal fauna, prehominids lived in the forests. There was a warm, temperate climate, with probably frostfree winters. Basaltic volcanoes overlooked the landscape, and maars hosted minor lakes with rich algal flora forming oil shale.
The catchment area included most of the Carpathians and parts of the Alps and Dinarides. The positive water balance resulted in a supposed overflow in the southern margin, supplying exotic fauna to the South Carpathian and Dacian basins of the Eastern Paratethys. The Pannonian Lake was completely filled by the end of Pliocene. Recent lakes in the Carpathian Basin are not descendants of it.
Introduction
A series o f s m a l l e r o r g r e a t e r d e p r e s s i o n s are a s s o c i a t e d with the A l p i n e c h a i n s a l o n g the s o u t h e r n m a r g i n o f the E u r o p e a n plate. T h e largest o f t h e m is the P a n n o n i a n Basin, s u r r o u n d e d b y the C a r p a t h i a n s , A l p s , a n d D i n a r i d e s (Fig. 1). It h o s t e d the P a n n o n i a n L a k e for a p e r i o d o f ca 10 m i l l i o n years, d u r i n g L a t e M i o c e n e a n d Pliocene times.
T h e c o m p l e t e life-time o f the P a n n o n i a n L a k e lasted f r o m a b o u t 12 M a , w h e n it b e c a m e s e p a r - a t e d f r o m the h u g e b r a c k i s h w a t e r b o d y a l o n g the n o r t h e r n m a r g i n o f the A l p i n e chains, k n o w n as the P a r a t e t h y s , until 2.4 M a (the P l i o c e n e - P l e i s t o - cene b o u n d a r y ) , by which t i m e it was c o m p l e t e l y 0031-0182/90/$03.50 fC 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
filled in b y sediments. T o d a y the s e d i m e n t s o f the f o r m e r l a k e c o v e r an a r e a o f a b o u t 250,000 k m 2, c o m p a r a b l e in size to the p r e s e n t C a s p i a n Sea (370,000 k m / ) .
O u r s t o r y begins w h e n the l i t h o s p h e r i c p l a t e s o f the C a r p a t h i a n - P a n n o n i a n r e g i o n a s s e m b l e d to f o r m their p r e s e n t p a t t e r n (Balla, 1987), c a u s i n g the uplift o f the C a r p a t h i a n arc a n d the i s o l a t i o n o f the P a n n o n i a n L a k e ( S t e i n i n g e r a n d R6gl, 1985).
C o m p r e s s i o n a n d t h r u s t i n g in the C a r p a t h i a n s lasted until the L a t e M i o c e n e o r Pliocene in different p a r t s o f the a r c (Jifi6ek, 1979), o v e r r i d i n g the s u b d u c t i n g E u r o p e a n plate. Differences in c o m p r e s s i o n a l o n g the m o u n t a i n r a n g e p r o d u c e d a s s o c i a t e d b a c k - a r c basins, as in o t h e r regions
172 M. KAZM~R
p J
European Platform
TO
0 200 KM
i ) m If,,, ,,,,~,
ADRIATIC EXPLANATION SEA , ~ THRUST FAULT WITH 1 SAW TEETH ON
UPTHROWN SIDE 2 ~ DIRECTION OF THRUSTING
• . % ~
Ponnonion Basin
~ , GP
Car pothions Moesion Platform
~olkon Mountains I
RhocJopion Massif
AEGEAN SEA
SEA
Fig. 1. The Pannonian Basin system is seated among the Alps, Carpathians, and Dinarides. The largest, central basin is the Great Plain (GP), while the Vienna Basin (II), Danube-Rfiba Lowland (DRL), SW-Transdanubian Basin (TD), Transylvanian Basin (TS), and Transcarpathian Basin (TC) are adjoining minor basins. These are separated by mountains, like Transdanubian Central Range (TDCR), Apuseni Mountains (A), or Biikk (Ba) (after Mattick et al,, 1985).
of the Alpine chain (Horvfith and Berckhemer, 1982).
The basement of the Neogene-Quaternary Pan- nonian Basin is made up mostly of Mesozoic and Palaeozoic rocks; both the lithology and the tectonic style can be correlated with the Mesozoic nappe systems in the internal zones of the adjacent mountains (K~zm6r, 1986).
The name of the basin, and of the lake, is derived from the Pannonian province, part of the ancient Roman Empire from 11 A.D. until the 4th century.
When World War I terminated a millennium of Hungarian domination, the region became divided among six countries, where geological literature is published in ten languages (Hungarian, German, Czech and Slovakian, Ukrainian and Russian, Romanian, Serbian, Croatian, and Slovenian).
This linguistical caleidoscope hinders mutual understanding, and each other's results are fre- quently overlooked. Probably the present paper is not exempt from it.
Most of the Pannonian Basin lies in Hungary, where an ambitious hydrocarbon exploration and production programme (including several thousand boreholes) has been running for over 50 years. The present paper is based on published Hungarian data, with necessary additions from the neighbouring countries.
B a s i n e v o l u t i o n
Tectonics
The continental crust of the Pannonian Basin was about 36 km thick in Middle Miocene time.
How did it reach its actual 24-27 km thickness?
Subcrustal thinning of the lithosphere began in
the Ottnangian (for regional chronostratigraphic
units see Fig.2), providing a general but moderate
subsidence in the central region. Its effect is shown
by the area with 0 to 2 km sediment thickness in
Fig.3.
B I R T H , L I F E A N D D E A T H O F T H E P A N N O N t A N L A K E 1 7 3
~ .
oul
STAGESt~ ~ W MEDITERRANEANIC. PARATETHYS 1
1 -
o CALABRIAN
2
PIACENZIAN
3 z
o
4 ZANCLEAN
5
ROMANIAN
DACIAN
6 MESSINIAN
PONTIAN 8
9 _; TORTONIAN
- 1 0 - PANNONIAN
, 1 1
• 1 2 - ,,,
• 1 3 z
SERRAVALL I AN
- 1 4 m
u ~
• 1 5 . o ~_
• 1 6 . " -
LANGH l AN
-17. "
E--t
SARMATIAN
BADENIAN
OUR DIVISION
, 1 8 -
- 1 9 -
~RDIGALIAN
.2o.
W , 2 1 -
Q
2.4-
UPPER PANNONIAN
Pa 2
z P a ~
¢,r
~, ~ :1o- jo ~ pal:
~- - 1 1 "
P a'~
. 1 2 -
SARMATIAN M 5
1 4
BADEN I AN M4
GENERAL FACIES
tu ,G
u..
W - I
m u .J
.,e M v
KARPATTEN I K A R P A T . M 3 "17 ' "
1 Z 5 z
OTTNANG I AN OTTNANG I AN "q e~
M 2 ¢
1 9 E EGGIENBURG.
EGSENBUR81 AN M 1
, 2 2 -
" 2 3 .
A O ( . I I T ~ I ~
Fig.2. Regional chronostratigraphic units of the Mediterranean and the Central Paratethys (= Pannonian Basin). The right column displays the classical stratigraphic units applied by the Hungarian oil industry (Horvath, 1986).
In Badenian time a superposed N - S compres- sion produced a complex stress pattern (Bergerat et al., 1984), with a major, E - W tensional compo- nent. It established several minor, deep basins (Fig.3), arranged in a clear-cut extensional basin system (Fig.4). The strain pattern was dominated by SW NE, mostly left-lateral strike-slip faults,
and associated normal faults, bordering the deep basins. Seismic profiling reveals listric normal faults, represented as synthetic and antithetic growth faults rotating the enclosed blocks (Fig.5).
Extension along the Kadarkt~t profile (locality A
on Fig.4), for example, was about 50% for the
fault-affected basins, almost zero for the neigh-
174 M. K,~ZMI~R
[ ~ t Late Cenozoic volcanic rocks
":;i-" L
- - -
# , : , ' ~ ! I ~ D
"iQ I
G ~ " ~"' {'"'; ~ .... : , ~ :,', :~-], ",<:; ( ...:..'.:"::..~
., ,
\
Krakow
< ~ ~ - ' ~ - ~ - - "~'~'~ Przemysl ISOPACH__ INTERVAL
1-2kin
~ . : ~ , 0 5 . 3 ~ ' ~ . [ ] 2-3 km
\
/
q
1,""-',i
'0 400 km
', ,, , -,
". '.'.
.'; I ' I ' ' ~ lFig.3. Thickness m a p o f Miocene to Q u a t e r n a r y sediments shows depocenters o f the P a n n o n i a n Basin system. A p p r o x i m a t e ages ol contemporary intermediate to acidic igneous rocks are also shown (Pbka, 1982). Fold axis symbols show location and trend of some of the Sava folds affecting Pliocene sediments. Basins: V= Vienna, D = Danube, G = Graz, Z = Zala, S = Sava, D r = Drava, P = P a n n o n i a n (s.str.), T c = Transcarpathian, T s = Transylvanian. Dashed lines show regions o f pre-Neogene outcrops (Royden et al., 1983).
bouring basement blocks, totalling 20% for the profile.
The basin subsidence can be explained by the combined effects of isostatic compensation for crustal thinning and the subsequent cooling and thermal contraction of the crust and upper mantle (Royden et al., 1983).
Volcanic activity
There was extensive volcanic activity along the eastern margin of the Pannonian Lake from 10 to 3 Ma (Late Miocene Pliocene) (Fig.3). The prod- ucts are andesitic to rhyolitic ignimbrites, pyroclas- tics and lesser volumes of lava. Volcanism was related to the subduction of the European plate below the Eastern Carpathians (Balla, 1981).
Basaltic volcanoes were scattered in the Panno- nian Basin. Their eruptions occurred from 11 to 1 Ma, mostly on land, more rarely below the lake (Balogh et al., 1986). Their origin is less well
known than that of the andesites, but it may have been connected with the extension of the Panno- nian Basin.
Stratigraphy (Table 1)
The classical subdivision of Pannonian sedi-
ments at lake margins is based on benthonic
bivalves and gastropods, and is supported by
lithologicai and facies studies. Their environmental
sensitivity and endemism make the correlations
inside and outside the lake somewhat questionable
(Korp~s-H6di, 1983). Since formations and eco-
zones were hardly applicable in the deep basins,
alternative lithological subdivisions, supported by
well-log data were established by the hydrocarbon
industry, later corroborated and interpreted by
seismic stratigraphy. Correlation within the Pan-
nonian Basin seems to be best attained by
extensive seismic profiling. Planktonic stratigra-
phy, based on dinoflagellates, and palaeomagnet-
w •o~°O~O~
L_.
NI
i'M .,VVV VVv,~vZ'; v "%
~w ~ AVv,.V--'v-- - ~ - ~ ,, ,,v,J,V r r Ct w/ ... :::.ii :il :;::~ Fig.4. A conjugated transcurrent fault system and associated normal faults produced the Late Miocene Pliocene extensional basins of the Pannonian Lake (Compare their locations to the depocenters on the sediment thickness map of Fig.3). Legend: 1 =molasse foredeep, 2=flysch belt, 3a-other (mostly pre-Tertiary) units of the Alps, Carpathians, and Dinarides, 3b - Neogene igneous rocks on surface, 4 = strike-slip fault with known or inferred sense of displacement, 5 = normal fault, thrust, folded anticline, 6 = extensional basins (Rumpler and Horv~th, 1988, reprinted by permission). Interpretation of seismic profile A is shown on Fig.5; facies analysis of profile B is shown on Fig.7.
r-- > 7~ -r © z > 2, 7~ 7~ r'v ta~
SSW NNE
t/d "S" l--- ._J l.l.l I""<>
! 0 I-.-0
/ / /
~20% EXTENSION Fig.5. Early stages of basin evolution; Middle Miocene listric faulting resulted in subsidence and extension of continental crust. Location A on Fig.4. Top: interpretation of the Kadarkfit high-resolution seismic profile; bottom: restoration of the blocks before extension. Symbols: P= Pannonian, M4 = Sarmatian, g 3 = Badenian, Pz = Palaeozoic, A-F mark Palaeozoic blocks (Horv~th and Rumpler, 1984). NBIRTH. LIFE AND DEATH OF THE PANNONIAN LAKE
TABLE 1
Selected papers on the stratigraphy o f the Pannonian Basin
Lithostratigraphy
margins
basins: Transdanubia Great Plain
Biostratigraphy
dinoflagellates spores and pollen foraminifers
molluscs (ecostratigr.) vertebrates
Chronostratigraphy Magnetostratigraphy Seismic stratigraphy
JS.mbor (1980) Bardrcz et al. (1987) Brrczi et al. (1987)
Sfitr-Szentai (1982) Planderovfi (1972) Korecz-Laky (1987) Bartha (1971), Korpfis-H6di (1983)
Kretzoi (1985, 1987), Kordos (1987)
Vass et al. (1987) Elston et al. (1985), P6csi et al. (1985) Pog~ics~s (1985, 1987)
ism associated with seismic stratigraphy are prom- ising new methods to overcome the difficulties.
Stages of the Central Paratethys and their correlation with Mediterranean chronostratigra- phic units are shown in Fig.2. However, to understand the terminology of classical studies and present usage in hydrocarbon industry, an alterna- tive column illustrates the notions "Lower" and
"Upper" Pannonian.
Sedimen tology
Formation of the Pannonian Basin began in the Middle Miocene (Badenian). Marine environments prevailed at this time, with neritic carbonate deposition (Leithakalk) on submarine highs and bathyal pelitic sedimentation in the depressions.
Sedimentation did not keep pace with rapid subsidence, hence locally deep water conditions (up to thousand meters) persisted. Clastic supply derived from the uplifting Alps and mostly from the Carpathians was trapped in the marginal Vienna and Transcarpathian Basins. After their filling up by the end of Middle Miocene, the central and later the southern sub-basins began to receive sediments (Figs.3 and 6). The direction of sediment supply was from the north, west, and east towards the centre of the basin (Pogficsfis and Rrvrsz, 1987).
177
Facies
The Mak6 trough (locality B on Fig.4) hosts the thickest Neogene-Quaternary infill (more than 7 km) in the Pannonian Basin. Borehole profiles across the trough (Fig.7) clearly indicate that infiiling followed subsidence in time (B~rczi and Phillips, 1985). The Middle Miocene (Badenian) thin basal sediments (1) are redeposited conglom- erates alternating with marl beds, indicating depo- sition in a rapidly subsiding basin. The deep basin facies (2) consists of dark, laminated silty marls, without coarse clastic intercalations, deposited in a deep, oxygen-deficient basin. The prodelta facies (3) begins with distal turbidites, the number and thickness of marl intercalations decreasing up- wards. The top of this facies contains abundant slump structures, predominantly in sandstones. No bioturbation has been observed in facies 1-3.
The delta front-delta slope facies (4) is made up of inclined sandstone strata with dips up to 20 °, and abundant soft sediment deformation struc- tures. In the upper two thirds of the facies there are abundant traces of bioturbation. Facies 4 is the first to occur not only in the deep basin, but also on the neighbouring highs. It indicates that the prograding delta covered both former basins and highs, filling the Pannonian Lake almost com- pletely. Large scale foresets, recognized on high- resolution seismic profiles, indicate that lake depth had reached 700-900 m at the time of the delta progradation (Pog~ics~is and Rrvrsz, 1987).
The delta plain facies above consists of horizon- tal bedded sandstone and marl, with occasional lignite intercalations.
The facies model of Brrczi and Phillips (1985) (Fig.8) displays dissected bottom topography, with bathyal sedimentation between the highs, and a prograding delta hiding all topographic features while completely filling the basin.
The composite diagram of lake depth changes (based on seismic stratigraphy and interpretation of depositional environments) (Fig.9) shows that an initially starved basin, reaching 1 km in depth was later filled by sediments.
While the deep basins were characterized by a
relatively simple facies assemblage, a wide variety
of environments were established at the margins
178 M. KAZMER
"T
20 10 0
~V[ENNA BASIN ~
E G E O K B S P PL Q
_21:)_ I0 0
'"OUO"
\ \
EGE-O K B S P I PL Q
Ea,i~j JM,~leJLote
I
m i 0 C er~ e
i m e j m 9
20 I0 0
EG E O K B 5 P PL O
:!!!,N \
, \
EG E O K B S P PL O
b p
o 2o
_
~o2 - , + .
3
i I'RAN 5CA,RI:~I'HIAN
0
4 DEpIRESS[0N
EG E O K B 5 P PL Q
0 20 10 0
, ,
5 ^
EG E O K B 5 P PL Q
Fig.6. Infilling of the Middle Miocene extensional basins proceeded from external to internal depressions. The main filling event occurred between 15 and 10 Ma in the Vienna, Transcarpathian, and partly Transylvanian Basins. Most of the internal basins (Danube, Drava, Great 'Plain) have been filled up subsequently. Sedimentation versus time diagrams (stacked triangles indicate the time of calc-alkaline volcanism) (Horvfith and Berckhemer, 1982).
(Jfimbor, 1987). Besides the c o m m o n shallow lacustrine, m a r s h , : a n d fluviatile facies of sand, clay, and coal measures, variegated clay, etc., lagoons and p o n d s hosted special environments with deposition of freshwater limestone, pure white sand, cemented b y silica, or diatomite and oil shale.
Palaeolimnology Salinity
Pannonian Lake waters experienced two signifi- cant changes. The first occurred at about 14 Ma ago, at the Badenian/Sarmatian boundary, when normal marine conditions changed to brackish, more or less simultaneously throughout the whole Paratethys. It was caused by the final separation of Paratethys from the Mediterranean, and from the Indopacific region. The uplift of the Carpathians 12 Ma ago established the Pannonian Lake, separ-
ating it from the rest of Paratethys (R6gl and Steininger, 1984). While continuous sedimentary columns do not show any lithological change in this interval, the species diversity o f the fauna abruptly decreased (Dank and Jfimbor, 1987).
During the Sarmatian, ostracod faunas indicate minor changes of salinity within a range of 15-25°./0o. Then the lowermost Pannonian indicates a sudden decrease to 8-15%o, followed by a more or less freshwater environment. The upper part o f the Pannonian in this sequence indicates a brackish water environment with 8-15%o salinity. Percent- age values are provided by comparisons with modern ostracod assemblages in the Caspian and Black Seas (Korecz, 1985).
Chemical analysis of connate water from arte-
sian wells in the Pannonian Basin display a general
decrease of salinity with time (Fig.10). Waters
from 1-3 km depth yielded saline water o f sodium-
chloridic composition (5-15 g/l NaC1), while sedi-
ments from minor depths yielded freshwater
MI 4'1 (TD 3190m) Delta plain facies Delta front facies Sub facies B Prodelta ~ -v,e facies X sUbtacies A
Mak6-H6Omez6vasarhely trough H6d 4,1 (TD 5842m) oo,,~ r.la,o ,.,o. 5 Do.a ,,o°, ,~'°" 4 subtac,e~ B O/¢J ~-~ p~odelta lacleS
3
jq
Bes • 1 (TD 2866m) Dee. b.,o ,ac,e~ 2 B.sa, fat,.1 Fig.7. Extensional depressions were filled by deep lacustrine mud intercalated with distal, then proximal turbidites. Intra-basin highs received only a minor amount of sediment. A prograding sandy delta concealed differences in bottom topography. Boreholes Maroslele-1, H6dmez6vfis~irhely-1, and B6k6ssfimson-1 are in the Mak6 trough, just to the east of Szeged on fig.4 (B6rczi and Phillips, 1985).
1 8 0 M. K A Z M I ~ R
Fig.8. Facies model of the Upper Miocene-Pliocene basin fill of the Mak6 trough in the Pannonian Basin (B6rczi and Phillips, 1985).
Progradation of the delta resulted in the vertical assemblage of facies observed in the boreholes on Fig.6.
O v
E
t -
T i m e ( M a) basins, the older sediments yield more saline waters
20 15 10 5 0 than the younger ones from the same depth
I l t interval. (Fig. 10).
P a l ~ 2
M i o c e n e Plio¢.
Fig.9. Depth changes of the Pannonian Lake within the central extensional basins in time. After 10 Ma subsidence continued (see Fig.5), while increased clastic supply filled the basins. Uplift and erosion was negligible (Horvfith et al., 1988, reprinted by permission).
of sodium-bicarbonate composition (0.02 g/1 NaC1) (Korim, 1966; Kleb, 1971). While verti- cal change reflects the commonly observed increase in salinity with depth typical of many sedimentary
Stratification
Deep basin and prodelta facies lack bioturba-
tion, while delta front and slope facies bear
abundant traces of infaunal activity (B+rczi and
Phillips, 1985). This absence, together with associ-
ated framboidal pyrite in basin facies (H~mor,
1988) is taken as evidence for a stratified water
column. Stratification might have been produced
by abundant, year-long freshwater supply (indicat-
ing large rivers), or the absence of seasonal
overturn of the water body in the more than 700 m
deep lake. The Pannonian Lake contained several
local, closed basins. These were thermally and
chemically stratified (meromictic). Seasonal or
continuous high organic productivity by phyto-
plankton and bacteria in the epilimnion resulted in
the accumulation of organic-rich calcareous sedi-
ment below an anoxic hypolimnion.
B I R T H , L I F E A N D D E A T H O F T H E P A N N O N I A N L A K E 181
dissolved CI- and Na + (mg/1)- -salinity coefficient 2 ;~ s,o 20 so ,oo .~oo soo4op:2ooo sooo,oooo olt o?, ~ I ~ ~ 1o ~o3oso ,~
'° lllli!!JfriOrllirll]llllll IIfl Ifllllllllllllllllllll!tlll 1111111 i1111
3o I I
flilJll
~o
~,.,o'l IIIIIIIJ IlrJll Ifll I Iit111[ III
"" " [[I
J,.~,-, lll~Jllll II11 II
7o JIlI~ILLIlIIILIJII ÷I,-~JNIII I~ 1111111
e O - - IIIIIIlU IIIIIIll Illl T I h";]lll I IIIIlll
,o L i[ii
to0 I Iii
t-
~00300- 4
;~
t~llN",
700
. . . . , ,,, , . .
800 J
- - II11 k F/I
,000 ~~
'~gg bBsin [i i /I 1t1111 iillli [ ' iil Illl[ ;I L~"~l!i!)l
ooo I I Illlll lllllll l
o.ol ~oso,1 ~$1~ 5102or~
~ , Na CI [g/IJ
Fig. 10. Increase of salinity with depth in the connate waters of the Pannonian basin fill indicate a shift from Late Miocene brackish to Late Pliocene freshwater composition. The right curve indicates changes in the salinity coefficient of Stadnikoff (1958): equivalent Na divided by equivalent Ca (Kleb, 1971).
Water balance
The sudden decrease of salinity at the Sarmati- an/Pannonian boundary indicates high fresh-water input and positive water balance. The rivers carried their sediment load (identified by micro- mineralogy) mostly from the Carpathians in N - S direction (Elek, 1987). Inflow was greater than evaporation, therefore an (intermittent) outflow existed through the Southern Carpathians (the Iron Gate) (Kojumdgieva, 1983) until ca.7 Ma,
supplying characteristic Pannonian Congeria- Melanopsis mollusc fauna to the Dacian Basin (Steininger and R6gl, 1985; Papaianopol and Olteanu, 1979). The outflow may have ceased from 4-5 Ma onwards (Lubenescu, 1981).
The lake biota (Table 2)
A l l
faunal associations in the Pannonian Lake
were different from and show significant decrease
in diversity compared to the Sarmatian ones.
182 TABLE 2
Selected papers on the fossil biota of the Pannonian Lake and its surroundings
diatoms Haj6s (1985)
nannoplankton B6na and Gill (1985) dinoflagellates Sfit6-Szentai (1985) spores and pollen Nagy (1985), Nagy and
Planderovfi (1985)
plants Knobloch (1985), Givulescu (1986)
foraminifers Korecz-Laky (1985) thecamoebans Schreiber et al. (1985) gastropods and bivalves Bartha (1971), Papp (1985) land snails Lueger (1985)
ostracods Jifi6ek (1985), Krsti6 (1985) annelids Jfimbor and Rad6cz (1970) fishes Koch (1904), Brzobohat~ and
Panfi (1985)
mammals Rabeder (1985)
prehominids Kordos (1987) ichnofossils Jfimbor (1980, 1987)
Diatoms (Hajrs, 1985) lived near the margins of the Pannonian Lake, and are found in marl, diatomite, clay, tuffite, and sand beds. Deep basin sequences are barren of diatoms, probably due to diagenetic dissolution of the tests. Most of the 117 species are planktonic and epiphytic, besides a few benthonic ones. Nearshore, warm water species predominated. Most species preferred brackish or freshwater, there were only a few euryhaline species. There was also a large amount of variable, large-size, heavily ornamented, endemic species.
Other siliceous fossils are: silicoflagellates, ebri- dians, unicellular flagellates, Chrysomonadales cysts, and Phytolitharia.
Calcareous nannoplankton (B6na and G~.I, 1985) is represented by 17 species, five of them being endemic. These occur in clay and silt, in borehole profiles near the lake margins. Most of them are tiny specimens, not yet systematically described.
Although these occur abundantly in a few layers, probably do not make significant contribution to the sediment.
Dinoflagellates (Siit6-Szentai, 1985) are suitable for the correlation of margin and basin sequences.
The 28 species help to define 6 biozones, based on occurrences determined by water temperature and
M. K,A, ZM [~R
composition. Other chitinous organisms are: scole- codonts, foraminifers, and freshwater green algae.
Two species of the siliceous rhizopod genus Silicoplacentina (Thecamoeba) (Schreiber et al., 1985) occur in Lower Pannonian sediments of Hungary and Austria. These are probably indica- tors of deep (lacustrine) environments.
Besides the rich, redeposited Sarmatianforamin- ifer faunas, 5-7 species of endemic, agglutinated foraminifers occur in lowest Pannonian sediments (Korecz-Laky, 1985).
The Pannonian Lake is best known for its bivalves and gastropods (Bartha, 1971; Papp, 1985). The bivalve Congeria (Fig.l 1), the gastro- podsTheodoxus and Melanopsis are remnants of a more diverse Sarmatian fauna. The isolation of the lake produced a wide variety of endemic forms, like the bivalves Limnocardium, Dreissena, peculiar gastropods: the extremely evolute Valenciennesia and the straight Orygoceras. Marginal environ- ments are characterized by Congeria and Melanop- sis, while basin sediments are rich in Limnocar- dium. The gastropod Viviparus is abundant in fluviatile and shallow lacustrine environments.
More than 90 species of ostracods (Jifirek, 1985, Krstir, 1984) are known from lakeshore and deep basin environments of the Pannonian Basin. While poor for correlation purposes, they are highly suitable for environmental analysis (Korecz, 1985).
The fishes are rarely whole specimens (Koch, 1904), but mostly otoliths and teeth of teleostei (Brzobohat~ and PanS., 1985). The fauna is poorly described. Mostly brackish water species are known, freshwater ones being subordinate (prob- ably due to greater chance of preservation in earlier, deep lacustrine environments). Both ben- thonic and nektonic, carnivorous and herbivorous types occur among the 41 species known. The fauna seems to be marine, surviving the "salinity crisis" at the Sarmatian/Pannonian boundary, associated with some endemic Pannonian species.
Climate and environments of adjacent land areas
A mixed mesophytic forest containing about
hundred species dominated the landscape (Then-
ius, 1982). Algae and other aquatic plants
abounded in ponds. Galleries of marsh and swamp
B I R T H , L I F E A N D D E A T H OF T H E P A N N O N I A N L A K E 183
Fig. l I.
Congeria
bivalves are the most frequent fossils of the Pannonian Lake (collection of the Department of Palaeontology, E6tv6s University. Budapest; photo: ,/~goston Nagy).forests
(Taxodium~ Alnus)
s t r e t c h e d a l o n g the lake s h o r e a n d a l o n g w a t e r c o u r s e s . Besides closed forests, o p e n w o o d l a n d s with m i x e d d e c i d u o u strees a n d grasses o c c u r r e d , too. C o n i f e r o u s forests f o r m e d a significant p a r t o f the flora, n o t o n l y at h i g h e r elevations, b u t also at the l a k e s h o r e
184 M. KAZM~R (Magyar, 1988). Subtropical elements were pre-
sent, but no palms.
Characteristic forms of the mammal fauna (Rabeder, 1985) were rhinos, chalicotheriums, tapirs, forest antelopes, dinotheriums, mastodons, and frequent hipparions, and last but not least, ancestral prehominids (Rudapithecus) (Kordos,
1987)).
The mixed mesophytic forests indicate a warm, temperate climate with mild, probably frostfree winters. Mean annual temperature was above 13°C, while 22°C was the average temperature of the warmest month. Mean precipitation was above 1000mm/yr, without a markedly dry season.
Regions with comparable modern vegetation and climate are found in China (25-35°N lat., 200-750 m above sea level) and Japan (30-32°N lat., 0-500 m a.s.1.). Climatic differences have been recognized between northern and southern parts of the Pannonian region, subtropical elements occur- ring in the latter only. Part of the plains in the middle part of the Pannonian Basin may have had different vegetation with more open woodlands, where numerous animals of today's African savan- nas lived (Kretzoi et al., 1976; Thenius, 1982; Nagy and Planderov~i, 1985; Givulescu, 1986).
Palaeogeography (Figs.12 and 13)
About 14 Ma ago (Badenian) seaways existed from the Carpathian-Pannonian region through Anatolia to the Indopacific realm. Orogenic move- ments from the Badenian onwards disconnected the Paratethys basins from the world ocean and from each other, too. Rivers reduced the salinity of the water, followed by decreased diversity and increasing endemism of the fauna. From 12 Ma onwards only three major basins remained: the Pannonian, the Black Sea, and the Caspian Basins, without significant connections between them.
While the Black Sea and Caspian Basins have maintained the enormous water body in them (because marginal depressions trapped the sediment load of the rivers), the Pannonian Lake was filled by the end of Pliocene, despite continuing subsid- ence (R6gl and Steininger, 1984; Kojumdgieva,
1983). The Recent shallow lakes (Balaton, Fert6, Neusiedler See) - - being younger than 20,000 years - - bear no connections to the Pannonian Lake.
Resources (Table 3)
The most important mineral resources of the Pannonian Basin are water, hydrocarbons and
pARAT T"YS
M E D I T E R R A N E T E T H Y S
Fig.12. Marine bioprovinces in the (Middle) Miocene of Europe (R6gl and Steininger, 1983). The inland sea among the Alps,
Carpathians, and Dinarides is the site of extensional basin formation.
BIRTH, LIFE AND DEATH OF THE PANNONIAN LAKE 185 - s 0
P
Fig.13. Latest Miocene palaeogeography. The Pannonian Lake (P) is the westernmost lake of the disintegrated Paratethys (dotted).
Meanwhile the Mediterranean was hit by the Messinian salinity crisis (dashed lines) (after Steininger and R6gl, 1985, modified).
TABLE II1 Natural resources excluded)
of the Pannonian Basin (ore deposits
hydrocarbons Dank (1985)
thermal water, freshwater Erd61yi (1978), Rdnai (1978)
mineral waters Dobos (1985)
lignite Rad6cz (1985)
oil shale Solti (1985a)
diatomite Jfimbor (1971)
bentonite Solti (1985b)
quartz sand Tham6-Bozs6 (1985),
Bihari (1987) feldspar sand
clay, sand, gravel, flagstone
lignite.
Thermal waters,from 20 to 100°C in temperature are tapped by more than 20,000 artesian wells for communal water supply, bal- neotherapy and heating.
Oil
fields are located around the deep basins in the Vienna, Zala, Drfiva Basins, in the Great Plain and the Transylvanian Basin. Organic geochemis- try of hydrocarbons (distribution of n-alkanes in capillary gas chromatographic spectra) (Sajg6, 1980; Sajg6 et al., 1988) indicates that crude oil is derived mostly from organic matter of planktonic algae (n = 17, 18, 19), with minor additions from coniferous trees (n=27, 31, 33). The source rocks are mostly Lower Pannonian marls, deposited in oxygen deficient environments; the traps are mostly in the interbedded and overlying sand-
stones. The passive upwelling of hot asthenosphere during extension of the crust produced elevated thermal gradients (D6v6nyi et al., 1983), which helped the sediments of the Pannonian Lake to reach the oil-generation window between
1800-2500 m (Jfimbor et al., 1987).
Oil shale
occurs mostly in the craters of basaltic volcanoes (maars); it accumulated in strongly eutrophic small lakes. It is quarried as a natural fertilizer.
Bentonite
is a weathering product of rhyolite tuff and basalt tuff.
Pure quartz sand
and siliceous sandstone were formed in embayments of the lake, under joint influence of wave activity (sorting) and aggressive groundwater (dissolution of non-silica minerals).
These are quarried for glass factories.
Acknowledgements
The author has greatly benefited from the comments of B. G6czy, F. Horv~th, M. Monostori (E6tv6s University, Budapest), C. Sajg6 (Geo- chemical Research Laboratory, Budapest), and M.
R. Talbot (University of Bergen). Their help is sincerely acknowledged herein.
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