Eötvös Loránd University
The attitude and motivation of learners of Ukrainian and English in Transcarpathia
Henkel Beatrix
THESIS BOOKLET
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN LANGUAGE PEDAGOGY
Supervisor: Csizér Kata, Phd.
2012
Contents
Contents... 2
Introduction ... 3
Theoretical background ... 3
I. Language learning motivation ... 3
II. Language teaching in the Transcarpathian region ... 9
II.1. The status and role of Ukrainian among ethnic minority members ... 9
II.2. The status and role of English among ethnic minority members ... 10
Research questions ... 11
Method ... 12
Instruments ... 12
Participants ... 14
Data collection... 15
Data analysis ... 16
Results and discussion... 17
Research question #1... 17
Research question #2... 18
Research question #3... 20
Research question #4... 21
Conclusions ... 22
References ... 26
Introduction
Language motivation is considered to be a central factor in the language learning process (e.g.
Gardner, 1985; Dörnyei, 2005). It very often explains why learners choose studying a certain language, why they hold on despite the difficulties and failures they might experience. Thus getting familiar with the construct of language motivation might help oneself to get closer to a proper understanding of motivated behaviour.
Understanding the nature of motivation represents a real challenge especially if several languages and a unique social context are included in an exploration. Conducting an investigation under the named conditions will definitely bring forward the challenge of identifying core elements in two or more language motivation constructs and another challenge in becoming able to generate adequate conditions to compare the motivation constructs.
In the present piece of research this challenge is answered by comparing motivation to learn two languages holding completely different status. This project was carried out in a unique multilingual setting where several languages and dialects are used simultaneously and the state language is only one of the many. Out of this multiethnic environment members of an ethnic minority group were chosen to be respondents of the current research endeavour. A mixed method research design helped the investigation to uncover the answers to the research questions that will be proposed below after the theoretical background is introduced.
Theoretical background
I. Language learning motivation
The literature review is divided into two main units that make up Chapter 2 in the present thesis. The first part of the review deals with the domain of language learning motivation and begins by introducing several definitions of language motivation the majority of which includes at least one of the terms of choice, effort and goal, in their conceptualization of the notion (Dörnyei, 1998; Gardner, 1985). Besides, some other definitions are also included that look at the dynamic and interactive side of motivation that perceive motivation as a process or as a constant link in the interaction between the individual and his/her environment (Dörnyei
& Ottó, 1998; Csizér, et al., 2010).
Finally, Dörnyei’s (2000) definition is introduced and is chosen to be the guiding conceptualization of motivation of the present thesis. It was found to contain each aspect of
motivation relevant from the point of view of the focus of the present research. Dörnyei claims that “motivation to learn a foreign language involves all those affects and cognitions that initiate language learning, determine language choice, and energise the language learning process. Due to the complex nature of language itself-- it is at the same time a communication code, an integral part of the individual’s identity, and the most important channel of social organisation - L2 motivation is a highly eclectic and multifaceted construct, consisting of a range of different motives associated with certain features of the L2 (e.g. various attitudes towards the L2), the language learner (e.g. self confidence or need for achievement), and the learning situation (e.g. the appraisal of the L2 course or the teacher)” (p. 425). As it can be seen, this conceptualization includes reference to identity, to the nature of the language- specific issues, to the learning environment and to the complex interaction of the three.
Following the definitions, various theoretical frameworks of second language (L2) motivation are introduced. First, Gardner’s (1985) socio-educational model is described briefly, as it has been (and perhaps is still) considered to be the most dominant framework of L2 motivation. Gardner’s model also has an emphasis on the social side of motivation which is relevant in the present piece of research, as well. The dominance of the Gardnerian model was questioned at the beginning of the 1990s, though, when Dörnyei (1994) raised some terminological, conceptual and measurement issues in connection with the model. Alongside with Dörnyei’s claims need for more education-friendly approaches also appeared as well as requests for the inclusion of cognitive aspects in the field of L2 motivation. Authors of the
‘reform articles’ not only asked for change but proposed new models to encourage the reconceptualization of L2 motivation (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991; Dörnyei, 1994; Oxford &
Shearin, 1994; Williams & Burden, 1997). These models are, in turn, also described as they were also thought to add to the understanding of language motivation.
After reviewing five models of motivation, the main theoretical framework of the present study is introduced, i.e. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System Theory (2005). The framework Dörnyei proposes has been applied in research projects taking place both in foreign and in second language settings, since it has come to light (for a collection of studies using the Self System Theory see Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009). Thus, validity and reliability measures of the model have already been reinforced. The model has been proved to be context-sensitive but it was also ascertained to have a self-focus, therefore it was found to be ideal from the point of view of the present investigation where both the individual and the his/her language learning environment were considered to be extremely relevant.
Dörnyei’s model is composed of three dimensions. Two of them are situated at the level of the individual (i.e. the Ideal L2 Self, the Ought-to L2 Self), while one is a broader dimension that allows the social environment of the learner to take shape in the construct. The Ideal L2 Self is the vision of the language learner of his/her future self as a user of the target language. The strength of the vision helps and motivates the learner to reduce the discrepancy between the actual and the imagined future self. Dörnyei (2009) claims that “traditional integrative and internalized instrumental motives would typically belong to this component”
(p. 29). Similarly to previous studies (Dörnyei & Csizér, 2005; Kormos, et al., 2011; Ryan, 2009), in the present research it was also assumed that the Ideal L2 Self will play a dominant role in learners’ motivation constructs. Besides, learners’ attitude towards learning a language was also hypothesized to be linked with their ideal self (cf. Alastair, 2009).
The other self-focused element in Dörnyei’s Self System theory is the Ought-to L2 Self. It is the counterpart of the Ideal L2 Self in Dörnyei’s (2005) motivation construct.
Higgins (1987) defines the ought-to self as a “representation of the attributes that someone (yourself or another) believes you should or ought-to possess (i.e. a representation of someone’s sense of duty, obligation, or responsibilities)” (pp. 320-321). Previous findings attest weak support for the Ought-to L2 Self as a dominant element of language motivation (Busse & Williams, 2010; Csizér & Lukács, 2010; Eid, 2008; Kormos & Csizér, 2008).
Instead, research projects report on its socially constructed nature (Kormos & Csizér, 2009;
Kormos, et al., 2011).
Opposed to these findings, it was hypothesized that the ought-to self will play an important role in Transcarpathian learners’ motivation to learn the state language due to the following factors. Altogether five factors were identified that could underline the relevance of the ought-to self in the Ukrainian motivation construct. First, the state has brought forward several measures in recent years to enhance the relevance of Ukrainian language competence in the country in every walk of life (Csernicskó, 2009b). Second, the knowledge of the state language is an obligatory prerequisite of further education at all level of studies. Third, Ukrainian is the only language used in the overwhelming majority of state-owned administrative, medical, educational units. Fourth, Ukrainian language knowledge has become the prerequisite of successful job applications. Fifth, due to the named external factors parents have become convinced that their children’s future is closely linked with Ukrainian language knowledge (Csernicskó, 2009a). Consequently, learners’ motivation to learn the state language might be related to avoidance of failure (in connection with the language exams)
and fulfilment of parental expectations (in terms of realizing one’s future plans) that are in turn are the characteristic features of the Ought-to L2 Self (Dörnyei, 2009a).
Contrary to the Ukrainian language motivation system the ought-to self is not assumed to play such an important role in its English counterpart. This assumption might be certified by parents’ lack of awareness of the real potential knowledge of English plays in the world which might be due to the fact there are only a few international companies in the region (Koval, 2011) that would promote the opportunities of English language speaking Hungarians and would, in turn, highlight the role of English in Transcarpathia. But the assumption described above might also point to the lack of proper emphasis on English language learning present in the available state educational programmes and materials which suggest that even governing bodies do not attribute much importance to English language knowledge. Thus, it is assumed that neither, learners perceive strong parental encouragement to learn English, nor state governing bodies make serious attempts to enhance English learning in Ukraine. If these suggestions are true then it might be argued that there are no feelings of duty, obligation that learners can perceive as reasons while learning English which then makes the ought-to self a variable with low explanatory power in the English language motivation system.
Besides the Ideal L2 Self and the Ought-to L2 Self, the third dimension in Dörnyei’s tripartite system is Learning Experience, which refers to the “immediate learning environment and experience” (p. 29). In the present study this dimension was restricted to language class experiences only, as it is only at the language classes that the majority of Hungarian learners use the named languages. Being the most frequent and interactive agenda of language use and practice language classes were also thought to stand in close relation with learners’ attitude to learn the examined languages (cf. Kormos & Csizér, 2010; Noels, et al., 1999).
Naturally, apart from the main theoretical framework of the present study, seven common and influential factors affecting language motivation were discussed. In the discussion of these elements special attention was paid to identify relevant empirical findings from the point of view of the present study. The following factors were selected: parental encouragement, anxiety, inter-cultural contact, attitude towards language learning, cultural interest, friendship orientation, and perceived importance of the language. Each of the seven factors was included in the research instrument applied in the current research in the form of questionnaire scales.
Partly, it was due to previous research findings that parental support was assumed to influence the language motivation of the participants of the present study (cf. Donitsa- Schmidt, et al., 2004). Parental support was also expected to be closely related to the learners’
Ideal L2 Self and the Ought-to L2 Self in the case of Ukrainian language motivation. Previous research findings confirm such relations in the case of English, as well (Dörnyei, et al., 2006;
Kormos & Csizér, 2008). The origin of the hypothesis was based on an assumption that parents attribute huge importance to Ukrainian and less but still considerable relevance to English language knowledge. In turn, this is a perception that they transmit to their children directly and indirectly and often use various reasons to enhance its vitality (cf. Orosz, 2007).
The second frequently mentioned factor chosen for discussion is anxiety that was found in several empirical pieces of research projects to have significant negative correlation with language motivation (Gardner, et al., 1997; Gardner & McIntyre, 1993). Besides, anxiety was found to stand in negative relations with contact experiences (Clément, et al., 1994) and lexical richness (Kormos & Dörnyei, 2004), as well. In connection with the Motivational Self System theory, Papi (2010) also found the Ideal L2 Self and Learning Experience to have consistent negative relations with anxiety, whereas the third dimension of the theory was found to have strong connections with anxiety. Papi concluded that learners having an ought- to self dominance in their motivation set-up demonstrate higher levels of anxiety than those having ideal self dominance.
The third factor included in the list among components of motivation is intercultural contact. Continuous intercultural contact make a change in learners’ attitude towards language learning which attitude change in turn affects motivation as it was found by Kormos and Csizér (2007). The authors also distinguish between two types of contact opportunities, i.e.
direct and indirect ones, out of which they found indirect contact experiences to represent Hungarian foreign language learners of English.
The next factor described is language learning attitudes which has been one of the most dominant element of motivation constructs since Gardner and Lambert (1959) seminal study was published. Several empirical findings even claim the Ideal L2 Self and attitudes to be the two most dominant antecedents of motivation (Alastair, 2009; Kormos & Csizér, 2008;
Lamb, 2004). In line with the named studies, language learning attitudes was expected to have a similarly huge role in the motivation constructs of the learners under scrutiny in the present research.
The fifth frequent element of motivation constructs is cultural interest. It covers a dimension in the motivation construct of language learners that has target language media in its target, i.e. interest towards media products available in the given language. Clément and Kruidenier (1983) were the first who isolated a ‘socio-cultural’ factor in the motivation of Canadian learners. Since their study several projects carried out among Hungarian foreign
language learners have ascertained the presence of a cultural interest dimension in learners’
language motivation (Csizér & Kormos, 2008; Csizér & Lukács, 2010; Dörnyei, et al., 2004).
Based on earlier findings an indirect relation to motivation is hypothesized. Taken the nature of the cultural interest scale it seems to be closer to the domain of intercultural contact, therefore it can be expected that the link between cultural interest and language motivation will be mediated by contact variables.
The penultimate element discussed is friendship orientation. Friends form an important part of learners’ life especially during adolescence (Higgins, 1996) and affect learners’ opinion and attitude to school, and school subjects (Nelson & DeBacker, 2008).
Therefore, attitude and opinion of friends, classmates, peers, or a best friend were found to contribute greatly to learners’ language motivation and were supposed to be important determinants of motivation in the present project, as well.
The seventh factor includes the perceived importance of the language to be studied.
The languages motivation to learn which is investigated in the current piece of research are assumed to be perceived important for different reasons owing to the rather different status attached to the knowledge of the two languages (i.e. English and Ukrainian). English is commonly perceived as an international or even an intercultural language (Widdowson, 1997;
Yashima, 2002) whereas Ukrainian is perceived to be a regional language (Csernicskó, 1998).
Furthermore, Francis and Ryan (1998) add that one of the advantages of English studies is that it does not go together with feelings of assimilation or subordination, whereas studying the language of the majority for a language minority member might comprise such feelings.
Still, a way of synchronizing the two languages at the level of their importance is to develop a bicultural identity that is to some extent rooted in the regional language (Arnett, 2002;
Ushioda, 2006; Wright, 2000) while the other part carries on a membership in imaginary international communities (Ryan, 2006). Relying on previous research outcomes it was hypothesized that becoming aware of the importance of a language will either directly form part of the motivation constructs of both languages or indirectly with the mediation of the Ideal L2 Self dimension (Kormos, et al., 2011).
After discussing the Motivational Self System theory, other theoretical frameworks and seven factors that were proved to be relevant components of language motivation constructs the literature on perceptions of learners’ motivation is reviewed in Chapter 2 of the thesis. Perceptions of both teachers and students of language motivation are summarized. It was done so as to examine the topic of perceptions of learners’ motivation that form the central theme of the qualitative part of the present piece of research carried out.
On the one hand, learners perceive macro-contextual factors (Kissau, 2006), teachers’
communication style (Noels, et al., 1999), their behaviour, methodological design of the language course (Gorham & Christophel, 1992), the support of parents (e.g.: Gardner, 1985;
Donitsa-Scmidt, et al., 2004) to be part of their motivation to learn a language. Besides, language contact (Dörnyei & Csizér, 2002) and self-related perceptions (self-efficacy, self- perception of identity) were also added to the list of perceived influential factors affecting motivation (Benet-Martinez & Harritatos, 2005; Kormos & Csizér, 2010). On the other hand, teachers are not fully aware of the needs that would motivate learners to learn languages but rely on their own conceptual models instead, when designing motivating classroom environments (cf. Hardré, et al., 2009). Sparks and Ganschow (1996) added that teachers also rely on data obtained from measurement instruments when deciding upon how motivated learners are. Thus, learners who achieve higher levels and obtain higher grades are referred to as more motivated than their low-achieving peers (Sweet, et al., 1998).
Similarly to previous attempts (Gorham & Christophel, 1992; Gorham & Millette, 1997), in the present study an attempt was made to compare learners’ and teachers’
perceptions of elements of language motivation. That is why findings of the questionnaire study that demonstrated the main underlying dimensions of motivation was incorporated in a schedule used in interviews with teachers and other educational specialists responsible for language teaching issues in the Transcarpathian region. In addition to satisfying the rules of triangulation, the mixed method research design was also expected to clarify the extent of overlap between teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of sources of motivation.
II. Language teaching in the Transcarpathian region
II.1. The status and role of Ukrainian among ethnic Hungarian minority members
Teaching the Ukrainian language in educational establishments as a compulsory subject was introduced in the 1990-91 school year (Csernicskó, 1998). Ukrainian is a compulsory subject throughout the school years. Taken together the number of language and literature classes per week ranges from four to nine. Despite the growing number of classes of the Ukrainian language and literature there appears to be no improvement in the learners’ perceived self- proficiency ratings. Beregszászi and Csernicskó (2003) report the results of a study carried out in 1996, with the aim of exploring the self-reported language competence of Transcarpathian Hungarians. 32.7% of the participants chose the ‘just a few words’ category, to illustrate their knowledge of Ukrainian, and only 56% of them claimed to be literate in
Ukrainian. This study included adults as participants. Only secondary school learners were the participants in another study carried out in 2000 including 595 respondents (see Beregszászi
& Csernicskó, 2003). Among the results it was found that although the perceived knowledge of Ukrainian has slightly improved since 1996, a point for contemplation would be the difference in age and experience of the participants taking part in the survey in 1996 and those in 2000.
Despite an increase in the number of educational establishments with Ukrainian as the medium of instruction and an increase in the number of compulsory Ukrainian language and literature classes at school, there did not appear a development in the Hungarian learners’
Ukrainian language proficiency. It is due to the following problems explored in Transcarpathian Hungarian schools: First, there is a need for the development of specific curricula for minority learners. Second, there is a need for specific course materials designed for ethnic minority learners (course books, dictionaries, etc.). Third, there are too few teachers of Ukrainian. In most cases either former Russian teachers were trained to become teachers of Ukrainian, or teachers of any academic subject who had graduated from universities with Ukrainian (or Russian) being the medium of instruction (for detailed reviews of the topic see Beregszászi & Csernicskó, 2004; Beregszászi, Csernicskó, & Orosz, 2001; Csernicskó, 1998, 2004; Karmacsi, 2002). In sum, it can be stated that despite an increase in the number of Ukrainian language classes the language competence of Hungarian learners has not improved.
II.2. The status and role of English among ethnic Hungarian minority members
Although English is the most widespread foreign language in Transcarpathia, less than one percent of the population of Transcarpathia speaks this language (Molnár & Molnár, 2005).
This fact confirms that this region, where my investigation takes place, can be considered a typical foreign language context, where foreign languages are only taught and learnt within the framework of instructional settings, and direct contact with the language is hardly available outside the language classes (Dörnyei, 1990).
There are hardly any studies dealing with the role of English among ethnic minority learners in Ukraine. This is a rather neglected area, as most of the attention is centred on the status and role Ukrainian, the state language, plays. As English is mainly taught and learnt within instructional settings, in what follows the situation of English language teaching in Transcarpathia will be described briefly.
English is introduced early in primary schools and is taught throughout the school years. The number of classes per week is changing from one academic year to another, which means the number of English language classes ranges from two to four classes per week.
Interestingly, there are less language classes in the upper forms of secondary schools. The English language teaching curriculum is said to be based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2001) and was compiled by Bekh (2001). But, as it is in the case of Ukrainian, adequate educational supplies are missing that raise serious barriers in the language learning/teaching process.
Huszti (2005), when reporting on an interview study with teachers of English in Hungarian schools in Transcarpathia, names the inappropriateness of the course book series for Hungarian schools, the lack of available audio materials, and the low number of language lessons per week among the reasons that English teachers in Transcarpathia name as factors hindering the effective teaching of English.
As it can be seen, there are points that the learning contexts of Ukrainian and English have in common. Lack of appropriate educational aids and that of frequent contact with these languages are just two of the barriers that both teachers and learners experience. Despite the partial overlaps between the learning contexts, we hypothesize the existence of dominant, influential differences between the reasons for learning Ukrainian and learning English.
Research questions
To guide the research and provide focus when interpreting the data, four research questions were formed. All the questions are based on the Motivational Self System Theory proposed by Dörnyei (2005). Including the research questions the following research design was constructed to suit the aims of the present research endeavour.
Table 1. Research design of the investigation
Research questions Data sources Methods of analysis
#1 What are the most dominant components that affect the Ukrainian motivational self system of Hungarian minority school-leavers in Transcarpathia?
Motivation questionnaire Statistical procedures using SPSS 13.0, which involve computing the mean, and standard deviation figures, calculate internal consistency reliability indices, identifying significant relationships between the scales and carrying out regression analysis.
#2 What are the most dominant components that affect the English motivational self system of Hungarian minority school-leavers in Transcarpathia?
Motivation questionnaire Statistical procedures using SPSS 13.0, which involve computing the mean, and standard deviation figures, calculate internal consistency reliability indices, identifying significant relationships between the scales and carrying out regression analysis.
#3 What are the similarities and differences between the Ukrainian and English motivational self systems among Transcarpathian Hungarian minority school-leavers?
Motivation questionnaire Statistical procedures using SPSS 13.0, which involve computing the mean, and standard deviation figures, calculate internal consistency reliability indices, identifying significant relationships between the scales and carrying out regression analysis.
#4 How do educational specialists view Hungarian minority learners’ attitude and motivation to learn Ukrainian and English?
Semi-structured interview Constant-comparative method
Method Instruments
In the present research project two major instruments were applied, i.e. a motivation questionnaire and an interview schedule. The initial version of the questionnaire contained sixteen scales that were created on the basis of Kormos and Csizér’s (2008a) and Ryan’s (2005) motivation questionnaire. Language contact items were adopted from Kormos and Csizér (2008b). With the help of think-aloud protocols, professional insights and a pilot study the instrument was refined, its items were altered, deleted. Besides, new items and completely new scales were also added during the development phase. The final version of the questionnaire contained eleven original and four newly added scales that added up to fifteen scales. The scales involved 75 items which formed the main body of the questionnaire.
Besides, altogether 16 items asked about the bio data and language learning history of the participants. The following scales were included in the questionnaire: Ideal L2 Self (six items), Ought-to L2 Self (own) (four items), Ought-to L2 Self (other) (four items), Learning Experience (five items), Motivated Learning Behaviour (five items), Written Language Use (three items), Language Contact (five items), Parental Encouragement (four items), Attitude towards Learning Ukrainian/English (four items), Language Class Anxiety (four items), Language Use Anxiety (three items), Direct Contact with English Speakers (four items), Direct Contact with Ukrainian Speakers (six items), Cultural Interest (four items), Friends
(five items), English as an International Language (five items), Local Relevance of Ukrainian (four items).
The interview schedule was developed in line with the findings of the questionnaire study. It was divided into four parts, including a section on bio data (age, work, experience, job description, etc.) another one inquiring about students’ general interest towards languages, and a third one that contained guiding questions referring to Ukrainian language motivation and the final one that focuses on English language motivation. Items in the third and the fourth sections were created on the basis of the findings of the regression analysis of the questionnaire data.
Therefore the Ukrainian part of the interview schedule asked about the role of parents of attitudes towards language learning, learning experience, the opportunities to use Ukrainian in the everyday life of the learners and the questions referring to learners’ future visions. The English section of the interview schedule included items inquiring about the ideal self of the learners, direct contact, the role of parents and language classes and the role of the ought-to self. There were some items in both the Ukrainian and English sections asking the respondents about which elements they think affect the L2 motivation of the learners. Another set of items inquired about the balance between the ideal self and the ought-to self, and the language competence of the learners.
The original interview schedule was designed in Hungarian. But as some of the interviews were conducted in Ukrainian, the schedule was translated into Ukrainian.
Alongside with the interview sessions, the interview schedule was continuously improved.
Some of the interview questions were altered to make it more feasible for the respondents.
After the first interview session three more items were added inquiring about opportunities for further studies for the interviewees, another one was added asking about sharing experiences, and a third one asked the respondents if they bring examples of other students to their learners. The other interview sessions resulted in adding some more questions that previously were not involved. Due to its continuous improvement the research instrument got its final form only after the last interview
Participants
To select the target group of participants for the questionnaire study, a multi-stage sampling procedure was applied. The proportion of Hungarians as compared to the ratio of Ukrainians in a given area served as a guiding principle when designing the sampling procedure. First, the number of districts, where Hungarians live were identified.
Next, on the basis of Molnár and Molnár’s (2005) interpretation of data of the 2001 national census in Ukraine, three adequate areas were identified within the Hungarian populated part of Transcarpathia. The area covering the Vynohradivskyy (Виноградівський район), Berehivskyy (Берегівський район) and Uzhhorodskyy (Ужгородський район) districts contain settlements where the ratio of Hungarians is 25% and above, this area formed the first group. The ratio of Hungarians is between 10 and 25% in the Mukachivskyy district (Мукачівський район) and therefore this area formed the second group. The third group included the territory involving Hust (Хустський район), Tyachiv (Тячівський район) and Rakhiv districts (Рахівський район), where Hungarians form 1 to 10% of the population.
The number of participants in each group changed in proportion with the ratio of Hungarians living in the area (Table 2. Distribution of participants in each questionnaire survey). Within each of the three groups the schools were chosen on the basis of convenience sampling. This sampling procedure was chosen, because it was hypothesized that there is a variance in the motivational disposition among learner cohorts belonging to the three groups.
Table 2. Distribution of Participants in each Questionnaire Survey.
Pilot study
Study#1 N=147
Study#2 N=211
Study#3 N=219 Group 1* (Including Berevhiskyy, Vynohradivksyy and
Uzhhorodskyy District and the town of Berehovo)
102 100 100 183
Group 2** (Including the District of Mukachevo and the town of Uzhhorod)
- 32 96 17
Group 3*** (Including Tyachivkyy, Khustskyy and Rakhivskyy District and the town of Tyachiv)
- 15 15 19
Note. The proportion of Hungarians in the area is *25%< ; **10-25%; and ***1-10%.
The very first data collection was a pilot study and served validation purposes. The second phase, i.e. Study #1 similarly to the pilot study examined both English and Ukrainian language motivation. The third stage in the data collection procedure, i.e. Study #2, focused
only on Ukrainian and helped in understanding learners’ state language motivation construct in a more detailed way. The fourth and last wave of data collection, Study #3, helped to establish draw conclusions firmly grounded in findings of previous research projects with reference to both English and Ukrainian.
There were seven respondents of the interview study who agreed to take part in the study, and allowed publishing issues alongside with the promised privacy issues (see Table 3 below). Altogether three (two teachers and the methodologist) of the seven respondents were asked only the questions referring to bio data, general interest towards language learning, and items specific for English language learning motivation of secondary school learners. Another three were asked the same questions and items specific for Ukrainian language learning motivation. There was only one respondent to whom all the questions present in the schedule were asked. He was a former official of the regional department of education.
The language of the interview sessions were Hungarian and Ukrainian. For some of the participants seemed to be more comfortable with the use of Ukrainian. As peer debriefing was present in each phase of the research, the interviews were carried out by two researchers.
Table 3. Bio Data of the Interview Respondents.
Name Age Work experience Major Position
Paige 42 14 years French language methodologist
Betty 32 10 years English language English teacher Tabitha 29 6 years English language English teacher Herbert 62 30 years Mathematics Education specialist Paula 47 25 years Russian and Ukrainian teacher Ukrainian teacher Susanne 38 13 years Russian and Ukrainian teacher Ukrainian teacher Dorothy 38 15 years Ukrainian teacher Methodologist
Data collection
The process of questionnaire data collection followed three steps. First, the headmasters of the selected educational establishments were approached with an official letter. Then, the date was approved and necessary arrangements with a teacher at the given school were made. As questionnaires were filled during one 45 minute lesson, there was a need to agree with the teacher having the class to allow the distribution and fill-in process to take place. The first and the second phases of the data collection were conducted by the researcher herself, whereas the third and fourth phases were conducted via teachers of the selected schools, who were previously instructed about the process of the data collection procedure.
In the interview study, after prospective participants were selected, contact was established with them in person. As the present piece of research was carried out by two
researchers, the respondents were approached with that researcher, whom they have already been in good terms with. First of all appointments were arranged, the interview schedule, if requested, was sent prior to the actual interview session.
The interviews and possible follow-up discussions were recorded by Olympus WS- 331M digital voice recorder. Before the interview the researcher and the respondent agreed upon the language of the interview (Hungarian or Ukrainian). The interviews were precisely transcribed, and checked with the interviewees had the analysis meet-ups started. Between two interviews, though, the researchers met, so as to discuss problematic points, practicalities, and possible changes in the actual schedule.
Both data triangulation and investigator triangulation were applied to enhance the transferability of the present study. Research data were triangulated, as naturally two sources of data were accessible for analysis, i.e. the questionnaire and the interview data. The interview data were analyzed by the two researchers working independently from each other on the basis of similar principles that ensured investigator triangulation.
Data analysis
After each occasion of data collection the questionnaire data were computed and analysed with the help of SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) 13.0. In the first and third study, both English and Ukrainian scores were entered, analyzed, but in the second one only the data referring to Ukrainian were computed and interpreted. First, the descriptive statistical measures were calculated, namely the mean and standard deviation of each of the scales.
Second, the internal reliability coefficients, i.e. Cronbach α-s were established. Third, significant correlations were identified between the scales. Fourth, regression analyses were carried out to identify the underlying components of motivational dispositions of learners of Ukrainian and English.
After interpreting the data coming from the questionnaires, non-parametric tests were applied to identify if there were any significant differences between the different learner groups studying in different language learning environments. The territorial division (described above) based on the ratio of Hungarians in various parts of Transcarpathia was applied as a criterion for creating groups and comparing them. But as the results of the parametric tests did not come up with significant variances in terms of motivational dispositions, but only in terms of obvious contact-related issues, they were not applied in Study #2 and Study #3.
Analysis of the interview data as the technical literature suggests it, started already at the very beginning of the research period (Creswell, 1994). Maykut and Morehouse (1994) qualitative data analysis principles dominated the analyzing procedure. Therefore, meaning units were highlighted in the interviews. Each meaning units received identification codes and were then gathered under various headings (categories). Each meaning units and category titles were then compared discussed and unified. Finally, the emerged categories in all the seven interviews were synthesized and new categories were created. If questions appeared, the respondents were contacted for clarification or explanation. The final and the most difficult part of the analysing process was to infer main categories and to find a logical way of arranging the huge pile of data.
Results and discussion Research question #1
What are the most dominant components that affect the Ukrainian motivational self system of Hungarian minority school-leavers in Transcarpathia?
The most dominant component of the Ukrainian language motivation model was the Ideal L2 Self. It means that learners’ motivation to learn the state language is closely related to their future possible selves, plans that are related to Ukraine, as this language is not in use outside the borders of the country. Besides, they might also relate the language with instrumental reasons having promotion focus, i.e. knowing Ukrainian equals favourable job opportunities.
Language knowledge helps becoming better job candidates is what the interview respondents also named among the elements of Ukrainian language motivation. Thus, both integrative reasons i.e. to integrate into the society and promotion-focused instrumental reasons (e.g.
getting a good job, or just having equal opportunities as majority members, etc.) form parts of the Ideal Ukrainian Self of the learners.
Participants of the interview study frequently referred to getting good grades, obtaining the driving license as common goals of students when learning Ukrainian. They connected these reasons with the learners’ future visions (cf. ideal self), but also pointed out its relevance in the general motivation construct, as well. Another aspect of the Ought-to L2 Self was also found in the interview reports. Namely, its inclusion of instrumental reasons with prevention focus, emerged when respondents talked about the obligatory university entrance exams. The exam includes questions from Ukrainian language and literature and passing it corresponds to successful entrance to the university regardless of the faculty one
enters. Thus, having ambitions that aim at avoid failing this important exam is a typical example of a prevention-focus instrumental reason.
Besides the Ideal L2 Self and the Ought-to L2 Self the scale of Parental Encouragement formed also part of the Ukrainian language motivation construct. Parental support might be to some extent related to parental expectations. Kao and Tienda (1995) for instance report parental expectations that centre around ‘upward intergeneration mobility’.
Besides, Phalet, et al. (2004) also conclude that minority parents attribute more importance to academic achievement than majority members. Thus, it can be concluded that in the present case minority parents see a strong link between Ukrainian language learning and academic, professional advancement.
A fourth scale included in the regression model was Attitude towards L2 Speakers.
Donitsa-Schmidt, et al. (2004) also found attitudes and parental encouragement to be the predictors of motivation to study Arabic. Besides, attitude is perceived to be the ‘messenger’
of learning experiences, parental behaviours and teaching practices in the motivation constructs (Kormos & Csizér, 2010). Thus, language learning attitude is a multi-faceted construct that by incorporating external incentives (coming from the domain of family or school) affects L2 motivation.
In sum, the Ukrainian language motivation model found strong support for Dörnyei’s theory (2005). A dominant position is attributed to the Ideal L2 Self in the construct. Contrary to previous findings the Ought-to L2 Self also had strong predictive power, not only in explaining motivated behaviour but in affecting the Ideal L2 Self, too. Learning Experience was found to have explanatory power as a rather significant element of the Ideal L2 Self.
Research question #2
What are the most dominant components that affect the English motivational self system of Hungarian minority school-leavers in Transcarpathia?
The most dominant element of the English language system was the Ideal L2 Self, which is a finding that can easily be embedded in previous pieces of motivation research (e.g.: Csizér &
Lukács, 2010; Dörnyei, et al., 2006; Kormos, et al., 2011; Kim, 2009; Ryan, 2009). The presence of the ideal self can be associated with the learners’ desire to be members of
‘imagined international communities’, to develop a cosmopolitan identity, or simply to access a tool that helps in realizing one’s future goals (Lamb, 2004; Kormos & Csizér, 2010; Ryan, 2006).
The Ideal L2 Self together with Attitude towards L2 Learning were found to be the most important predictors of motivation in the case of Hungarian and Swedish learners, too (Kormos & Csizér, 2008; Alastair, 2009). In spite of the fact that both scales were included in the Ukrainian language motivation system, as well, the role of attitudes seems to be more significant in relation to English. Taken it granted, that English is mainly learnt within instruction settings, it might be understood that learners rely more on their attitudes in visualizing their future self, a significant proportion of input regarding attitudes coming from language learning experiences.
But as one of the interview respondents claimed friends can also influence attitudes, especially towards learning (cf. Nelson & DeBacker, 2008). Maehr (1991) found a relationship between the influence and opinion of friends with achievement motivation, which might also explain why the Friends scale is included in the English motivation construct.
Another possible explanation for the inclusion of Friends in the model might be an underlying relationship between Friends and the Written Language Use scale. Compared to previous findings among Transcarpathian minority learners, the mean of the Written Language Use scale increased (Henkel, 2010). It might be linked with the fact that access to internet facilities has become more widespread. Thus, more and more learners started to be involved in opportunities offered by the internet that required the use learners’ productive skills, i.e. writing. Various chat services, community websites that help in establishing regular contacts with foreigners can be mentioned among such opportunities (Kormos & Csizér, 2007). Taken the influential role of friends, classmates and peers in late adolescents a strong relationship between friends’ opinion and learners’ choice of making use of internet-provided facilities can be established.
The last scale of the model is the Ought-to L2 Self scale. The appearance of this scale among the significant factors affecting motivation can be directly linked with the
‘international posture’ very often associated with English (Yashima, 2002). One of the interview respondents referred to the ‘international posture’ in a way that English knowledge would provide a ‘point for outbreak’ for minority learners. Another possible reason touches upon the instrumental benefits associated with English language knowledge, which in turn forms part of the Ought-to L2 Self (Dörnyei, 2005). Respondents of the interview study listed the following instrumental reasons for learning English: getting good marks, to understand computer games or user’s manuals.
To sum, Dörnyei’s model (2005) found only partial support in the English motivation system of Transcarpathian learners. The presence of the Ideal L2 Self and the Ought-to L2
Self was reinforced but Learning Experience the third dimension was not included in the model explaining language motivation. However, an indirect influence of the scale through the attitudinal scale might be hypothesized (Kormos & Csizér, 2010).
Research question #3
What are the similarities and differences between English and Ukrainian motivational self systems among Transcarpathian Hungarian minority school-leavers?
Three scales were parts of the models explaining Ukrainian and English language motivation.
The first and most dominant among them was the Ideal L2 Self. Thus, it can be concluded, that regardless of the language to be studied Ideal L2 Self plays an important role in language motivation. Parental support, the ought-to self, perceived importance of the language, and direct contact with speakers of the language seemed to be the elements of both ideal self constructs.
However, the Ought-to L2 Self also appeared as a separate and significant predictor of motivation to learn both Ukrainian and English. Consequently, the presence of instrumental goals in connection with language learning was reinforced. Dörnyei (2005) associated the Ideal L2 Self with more internalized instrumental motives, whereas he connected more external instrumental reasons to the Ought-to L2 Self. Accordingly, the predictive power of both the ideal and the ought-to self in the motivation models point to the presence and affective role of more and less internalized instrumental motives in the constructs of Ukrainian and English motivation.
The third factor was the Attitude towards Learning the L2 scale, which is a frequent factor in language motivation models (Dörnyei, et al., 2006; Gardner, 2006; Gorham &
Millette, 1997). As it was already noted attitude might be perceived as an umbrella term that comprises perceptions of learning experiences, of teachers’, parents’, and friends’ behaviour, respectively. It is also empirically evident that attitude together with other factors can directly or indirectly affect language motivation.
Attitude together with the ought-to self was found to be two complementary aspects of the ideal self which in turn was found to be a significant predictor of motivation (Csizér &
Dörnyei, 2005; Dörnyei, et al., 2006). Attitude together with the ideal self was found to be predictors of language motivation (Kormos & Csizér, 2008). Attitude together with parental support explained high proportion in the motivation of Arabic learners (Donitsa-Schmidt, et
al., 2004). In the present study not only attitude but the other three scales can also be found to be significant predictors of motivation.
It should be mentioned however, that Parental Encouragement is evidenced only in the Ukrainian language motivation model. In the English construct another milieu-related scale became to be dominant, i.e. Friends. Thus, both attitude and milieu remained but there turned out to be a difference in terms of significant others affecting the learners’ motivation.
A further difference between the two models was the Written Language Use scale. It was included in the English construct, but it did not play significant role in state language motivation for learners of a developing country. It was hypothesized that the main device that provides opportunities for written language use is the internet, which mostly benefits users of the English language rather than the Ukrainian ones.
In sum, two dimensions of Motivational Self SystemTheory seemed to be present in both motivation models explaining Ukrainian and English language motivation, respectively.
Both the Ideal L2 Self and the Ought-to L2 Self turned out to be significant predictors of motivation. But the third dimension, i.e. Learning Experience did not gain explanatory power in learners’ language motivation.
Research question #4
How do educational specialists view Hungarian minority learners’ attitude and motivation to learn Ukrainian and English?
There are two points that coincided in the data obtained from two different sources. The first is the presence of instrumental reasons for language learning in both datasets. Confirming the findings of the questionnaire study, respondents of the interview project also listed several instrumental reasons that affect learners’ motivation to learn Ukrainian and English. They connected better job opportunities, good marks and other pragmatic values (e.g.:
understanding lyrics, computer games, manuals) to English motivation, whereas they named environment-specific instrumental (e.g.: passing the entrance exam, get understood in offices, obtain a driving license) values regarding Ukrainian only. However, they talked about integration only with reference to Ukrainian.
Another point of interest (that appeared only in connection with Ukrainian) might be that respondents referred to the concept of ‘awareness’. Awareness of the need to know Ukrainian for teachers, parents, learners was emphasized, that could be associated with an internalized need for learning the state language in the present sample. As it can be seen from
the results, such type of awareness can already be observed in the Ukrainian language motivation construct of the participants, which shows to a common point drawn from the two data sources.
Respondents of the interview study attributed huge roles to language teachers. They claimed that language teachers affect the learners’ future visions to a great extent by communicating perspectives, opportunities that language knowledge offers to the learners.
The participants also highlighted teachers’ role in collecting success stories so as to keep learners’ ideal self as a vivid image, which opinion is shared by Dörnyei (2009a), too.
Similarly, participants talked a lot about the deficiencies of the language teaching process. They frequently attributed learners’ low level of language knowledge to the lacks of language education management. Both Ukrainian and English educational specialists argued for fundamental changes in the language teaching process.
Lack of direct reference to and numerous misunderstanding of the concept of the Ideal L2 Self might suggest that the participants themselves do not have a straightforward vision that can be offered for minority learners. In the case of Ukrainian language motivation the participants try to substitute the notion of the ideal self with plans, ambitions that learners should have after finishing secondary school and frequently refer to the teacher as a source of inspiring future ideas. Interestingly, the participants form requirements even though they themselves cannot describe learners’ idealized Ukrainian possible self.
In the case of English language motivation the situation is less promising. Besides, some generalizations, participants could not come up with valid examples for demonstrating the real benefits of English knowledge in the long run. One of the respondents even admitted that she is not aware of the advantage that English knowledge might give to Transcarpathian Hungarian learners.
Conclusions
The present study aimed at exploring the elements of the language motivation construct of minority learners in Transcarpathia. To achieve this aim a mixed-method research design was constructed including questionnaire studies and a qualitative small-scale interview study. The motivation questionnaire was distributed among Hungarian secondary school-leavers studying both English and Ukrainian, whereas the interview schedule served as the basis of the interview sessions that involved educational specialists who are responsible for the education of ethnic minority and majority children in the Transcarpathian region.
Regarding participants, altogether three questionnaire surveys were conducted involving 430 participants from the region. Each of the three studies applied a motivation questionnaire that was partly based on formerly published motivation and language contact questionnaires, and partly was expanded with newly designed items. But during the three studies the motivation questionnaire was continuously altered and improved in terms of item formation and scale construction, as well.
The interviews were delivered in a semi-structured format addressing seven specialists from various fields of educational management in Transcarpathia. The respondents were selected in a way to provide a maximum variation among them in terms of their work experience, and specific field of activity. The interview sessions were held in Hungarian and in Ukrainian, depending on the language preference of the respondents.
Regression analyses pointed out that the Ukrainian language motivational self system has three core variables that were included in each three regression analyses that were based on data coming from three different samples. The three shared components were as follows:
the ideal self, parental support and language learning attitudes. The role of the ideal self in the construct was the most dominant compared to the other two elements, however its presence in the interview data could hardly be detected. It might be explained by the learners’ lack of well-developed ideal Ukrainian self on the one hand, and teachers’ lack of awareness of proper reasons, motives serving the emergence of the ideal self, on the other hand.
Despite, both the questionnaire and the interview study findings refer to the importance of career-related goals in the language motivation constructs, which goal undeniably forms part of the ideal self. But, a clear description regarding the details of learners’ ideal self were missing from the interviews. It can be due to a lack of consciousness of the role Ukrainian language knowledge plays in the future of an ethnic minority learner in Transcarpathia.
Findings of the questionnaire studies also pointed out that learners’ vision of their ideal self is fuelled by their ought-to self, which is not surprising considering the compulsory Ukrainian entrance exams that serve as keys to further education opportunities. It becomes obvious then that parents expect their children to pass those exams, whereas learners try to do their best to avoid failing the entrance exam and at the same time missing the opportunity for further studies. Another important predictor of learners’ ideal Ukrainian self is parental encouragement the importance of which has just been confirmed. A third element of the construct concerns the local relevance, i.e. the perceived importance of Ukrainian in the region. The more the language is perceived to be inevitably important, the more efforts
parents expand to make the language available for their kids (cf. opting for Ukrainian schools instead of Hungarian ones) and the more learners integrate this necessity into their ideal self construct. Other elements of the construct include direct contact with speakers of Ukrainian and experiences obtained at the language classes, i.e. in the primary language learning environment.
Consistently throughout the three questionnaire studies the ideal self together with the ought-to self seemed to significantly correlate with parental support, which might be interpreted as the influential role that parents have in shaping their kids’ ideal Ukrainian and ought-to Ukrainian self. Thus, parents do not only encourage Ukrainian language studies with reference to prospective job opportunities, but also name more pragmatic values that knowledge of the state language comprises. That is parents can also communicate the need for Ukrainian knowledge by foreshadowing the possibilities of obtaining a driving licence, of making oneself understood in various governmental offices, in hospitals, and at other official state-governed institutions.
Another consistent and significant relation the ideal self had together with language learning attitudes is the one with learning experience. This finding might suggest that interview respondents are not far from being true when saying that enhancing learners’ future vision and giving perspectives mainly belong to the duties of the teachers, because as it can be seen that the experience that learners obtain at the language classes significantly affect their ideal self visions and their attitude towards learning the language.
It was the ideal self that stood out among the variables predicting English language motivation, as well. However, similarly to the Ukrainian findings, interview respondents could not denote the characteristic features of Hungarian learners’ ideal English self. Rather, the interview data suggested that the participants were not aware of the importance of English knowledge and of the benefits it can provide to learners of the language.
The ideal English self construct completely overlapped the construct of ideal Ukrainian self, except for the presence of learning experience in the ideal Ukrainian self. This finding might point to a tentative suggestion, namely that there are core elements in the ideal self construct regardless of the language under scrutiny. They are as follows: the ought-to self, parental encouragement, language learning attitudes, direct contact with speakers of the language and perceived relevance of the given language. Interestingly enough, these elements were only mentioned by the respondents using clichés instead of English-specific reasons and statements.
Alongside with the ideal self, the ought-to self also has been a significant predictor of motivation to study English in the conducted questionnaire studies. It is an unexpected finding, as English exam is just an elective exam, and degrees are not linked with foreign language exam requirements in Ukraine. One reason for the inclusion of the ought-to self in the motivation construct might be the pragmatic benefits that knowing English offers.
Respondents of the interview study named several of these benefits, e.g.: understanding lyrics, playing computer games, using chat services and other internet facilities.
There are also scales included in the English language motivation construct that were included only in the regression analyses of the data of Study #3. They are as follows:
language learning attitudes, written language use and friends. Surprisingly learning experience was not included, therefore the hypothesis that English is mostly used at the language classes and is not used outside the instructional environment does not stand to thorough examination any more. Learners together with friends make use of the services provided by English language programs, and the world wide web. This suggestion also explains the inclusion of the domain of written language use and might also caution that learners’ attitude to language learning is actively shaped in and out of instructional settings.
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