Focus on the teacher

With the expansion of research-based policy in the field of language teaching, the issue of the complexity of language teaching has become the focus of international attention

language teaching was emphasised within the scope rooted in linguistics and psychology. With the development of these two disciplines, the focus was shifted to a more practical approach, all efforts based on concerns with how to teach languages better. Subsequently, language education was seen from a different perspective and in the 1970s the new discipline of applied linguistics appeared in language teacher education. Rather than seeking to mention all definitions of applied linguistics presented by Davies (1999), the central interest here is in two main approaches: the first, ‘linguistics applied’ uses a theoryresearch approach; whereas the second,

‘applied linguistics’ supports a researchtheory approach. A new concern about research in foreign language education is apparent in a large number of models for language teaching (Stern, 1983) and this can be ascribed to a reflection upon the relationship between theory and practice. Despite the fact that all models have a good deal in common, there appears to be a general assumption (Stern, 1983) that neither of them is ideal and language teaching as a field of research includes the four concepts of language, learning, teaching and context. Taking this large area into consideration, leads us to the view that theories exist but teachers also have their own theories (Clarke, 1994).

It is only recently (Elekes et al., 1998; Johnson, 1997) that the importance of the teacher has been placed in the centre of attention. Some educational specialists (Colnerud, 1997; Oxford, Tomlinson, Barcelos, Harrington, Lavine, Saleh, & Loghini, 1998) have tended to put more emphasis on the concept of teacher. Researchers regard teaching as a demanding profession and focus on the teacher’s role and responsibilities.

The teacher dimension is nothing new but this time the aim is to look at the teacher from different perspectives namely “social order”, “cultural transmission”,

“learner-centred growth” and “social reform” (Oxford et al., 1998, p. 8). This leads to a variety of metaphors (Oxford et al., 1998, p. 3-50) about teachers. These metaphors can be seen as fourteen definitions of the concept and provide a better understanding of the teaching/learning process as well.

Four major points should be mentioned in relation to the above comments. First, the metaphors in the social order perspective (Teacher as Manufacturer, Teacher as Competitor, Teacher as Hanging Judge, Teacher as Doctor and Teacher as Mind-and-Behaviour Controller) suggest strict control in addition to domination over students.

Second, the metaphors in the cultural transmission perspective (Teacher as Conduit and Teacher as Repeater) imply recognition of students’ needs and cultural achievements, which determine the means and outcomes of learning. Third, the metaphors in the Learner-Centred Growth perspective (Teacher as Nurturer, Teacher as Lover or Spouse, Teacher as Scaffolder, Teacher as Entertainer and Teacher as Delegator) show even stronger concern for the learner as an individual along with sharing and facilitation. Fourth, the metaphors in the social reform perspective (Teacher as Acceptor and Teacher as Learning Partner) indicate a high degree of respect for the students as well as democratic consideration of their views and opinions.

It is also recognized (Colnerud, 1997) that there is a need to raise important issues concerning ethical problems, dilemmas and conflicts in teaching as well as to look at different dimensions of the process. In this study foreign language teachers are primarily regarded as professionals who enrich and raise learners’ knowledge of language on the basis of their existing knowledge base as teachers (Porter & Brophy,

1988). Language teachers are also seen as “emotional, passionate beings who connect with their students and their work” (Hargreaves, 1998, p. 835).

In such complex circumstances it seems quite plausible to point out that the straightforward aim for professionals is to become good teachers. Research on good teaching (Brosh, 1996; Hargreaves, 1998; Porter & Brophy, 1988) gives characteristics of effectiveness and provides guidance for improvement. The assumption (Hargreaves, 1998; Porter & Brophy, 1988) is that teachers should consider their goals and objectives in accordance with the particular classroom context. As far as the classroom is concerned, needless to say, a set of metaphors has also been created in order to provide a useful tool to facilitate the understanding of the notion. Breen (1985) looks at the specific culture of the classroom comparing it to experimental laboratory, discourse and coral gardens. Breen (1985) claims that teaching and learning within a context is particularly related to the understanding of the socio-cognitive experience gained through an individual and a group working together. The underlying assumption is that while teachers should have a better “understanding of the pedagogical, social and personal dimensions of the classroom” (Murhpy, 1993, p. 311), it is also plausible to explore the dynamics of the lesson (Breen, 1985; Prabhu, 1992).

A further important issue (Kagan, 1992) is that classroom teaching remains rooted in personality and experience. Attention is drawn (Kagan, 1992) to expert teachers who build their “highly personal theories” from their own self-awareness, failures and success (p.163). These speculations seem to raise the important issue (Gardner &

Cunningham, 1997; Malderez & Bodóczky, 1999; Oberg & Underwood, 1992) of

teachers’ personal histories and their own insights which play a major role in the different stages of their development in the profession.

Another interesting point to consider is the notion of language teacher development, which is extensively discussed in the field of language teacher studies (Gebhard &

Oprandy, 1999; Jackson, 1992; Kagan, 1992; Nunan, 1996). The term in-service development also emerges in the literature (Richards & Nunan, 1990) referring to the various forms for professional development such as seminars, workshops and meetings.

However, apart from the “deliberate and formalized activities” (Diamond, 1991, p. 46), which take teachers beyond pre-service years to upgrade their professional perspectives, a more complex understanding of language teacher development involves acquiring cognitive, emotional and teaching skills at a less formal, personal level. Hargreaves and Fullan (1992), for example, provide a detailed overview of how teachers improve during the process of their teaching carriers in terms of gaining a deeper and broader understanding of their actions and behaviours. The main theme correlates with the idea of years of teaching experience along with lifelong learning for which teachers take responsibility. Continuity and self-directed professional development emerge as significant implications for mastering the techniques and skills of teaching.

Jackson (1992) introduces the distinction between development and change. In this view, development is related to “increases in ability, skill, power, strength, wisdom, insight and virtue”, whereas change is regarded as “a decline in enthusiasm or an increased sense of discouragement” (p. 63). Although this distinction is considered relevant, the two terms (development and change) are adopted in the present study to mean differences in teachers’ professional behaviours, all moving toward more positive

directions. Gaies and Bowers (1990, cited in Gebhard & Oprandy, 1999, p. 37), who also discuss this issue, consider teachers’ improvement in terms of teachers’ ability to perform in particular contexts on the basis of their background knowledge.

It is also important to note that there is a growing recognition (Huberman, 1992) of research on teachers’ professional life cycles and teachers’ careers which translate into deeper understanding of how expertise is compiled. A more recent understanding of this matter is the sociocultural perspective of teacher learning (Johnson & Golombek, 2003) which takes into account teachers’ development grounded in the classroom (looking at teachers as learners), their further engagement in language teacher education (referring to how teachers learn to teach in different programmes) and finally teachers’

involvement in the profession (considering how teachers form their expertise in various institutions). These observations are associated with the importance one attributes to learning, particularly how foreign language learning has a bearing on foreign language teaching. Another interesting point to consider is that the link between learning and teaching a foreign language seems to have implications for the educational cohesion of pre-service and in-service teacher development (Bailey, Curtis, & Nunan, 2001;

Diamond, 1991), awareness of which is regarded crucial in the present dissertation.

Although views in the field overlap, the studies overviewed generate the idea that growth in the teaching profession is a long and challenging process which inevitably takes time to define or measure. Of special interest here is the variety of ways to help teachers develop. When making such efforts, the following areas are suggested (Jackson, 1992) for further enquiry: contribution to teachers’ knowledge growth, improvement of the work conditions, help with the work demands and stress as well as

facilitation of awareness and deeper understanding of the different dimensions in the profession. Clearly, expanding the image of language teaching and considering the process from the viewpoint of the individuals, who bring their own experiences, broadens the scope of understanding of how to improve professional performance and raises the issue of cooperation and its role in the teaching process.