Cooperation in the foreign language learning process

each other in an equitable way” (Nunan, 1992, p. 1). How learners can be involved in research is an interesting issue; however, this remains beyond the scope of the present dissertation.

Finally, as with many areas in the field, the issue of collaboration at research level has been a matter of debates (Allwright, 1993; 2005; Stewart, 2006). Discussions are about the concern that albeit collaboration in research seems to be occurring, participants are less aware of the cooperative matters involved. Critical issues emerge mainly concerning the relationship between teacher educators and practitioners (Grundy, 2001).

For example, Stewart (2006) identifies barriers between teaching practice and research on teaching, which leads to marginalizing distribution of power in research. Although collaborative experiments are carried out, academic educators are still recognized to be the experts who possess knowledge and skills to do research. On the other hand, teachers researching their own practice are considered to take a less rewarded and less privileged position. Taking into account the attempts for cooperation in action research and reflective teaching as research as well as the efforts to diminish the split between teacher educators and practicing teachers, it appears that it is worthwhile to consider the crucial role of cooperation.

learning is concerned with “a philosophy of cooperation rather than competition”

(Nunan, 1992, p. 1). One further aspect to be mentioned is that in reality in many cases, both elements can coexist in the classroom; however, in team work collaboration is most distinctive.

Cooperative learning, defined in section 2.1 as a process in which students work together on a shared task in order to achieve a common aim, is widely supported at the present time (Crandall, 1999; Davidson & Worsham, 1992; Goddard, Hoy & Woolfolk, 2004; Gwyn-Paquette & Tochon, 2002; Liang, 2004). The most direct evidence for the value of cooperating to learn has been provided by Slavin (1985) who explains why the common goal to achieve success has positive effects on the process. The author’s plausible interpretation with regard to team learning is that students are dependent on each other to achieve success and most likely cooperate because of the understanding that the success of their team-mates is necessary for their own success. In these terms the success of each team-mate is needed for the success of the others; therefore, mutual positive interdependence is established (Crandall, 1999; Slavin, 1985). The importance of collective beliefs in addition to group goal attainment has been perceived as essential for collective efficacy (Goddard et al., 2004). Researchers (Goddard et al., 2004; Slavin, 1985) have also found that working together toward a common goal also improves relationships within the group. This is mainly due to distribution of equal roles on the one hand, and attempts to interact on equal basis, on the other. In this respect, Slavin (1985) recognizes that working cooperatively has positive effects on student achievement. The substantial increase of achievement is also related to students’

positive attitude to school and their improved attendance.

Research on cooperative learning (Crandall, 1999; Garrett & Shortall, 2002; Gwyn-Paquette & Tochon, 2002) indicates that this way of dealing with foreign language learning is mainly adopted by teachers who show a strong preference for the communicative approach to language learning and teaching, and also favour learner-centred activities in the classroom. It is particularly in relation to teachers’ affinity for reflective processes, interactions and reflection among students, regarded essential to foster students’ development. This leads to the question of the positive aspects of cooperative learning. Existing research on the effectiveness of the cooperative approach in foreign language learning seems to support the belief that its use is justified by numerous advantages. First and foremost, cooperative approach promotes learning as it provides more opportunities for interaction in the target language (Crandall, 1999;

Edge, 1992a, 1992b; Gwyn-Paquette & Tochon, 2002). For example, learners are encouraged to communicate not only with the teacher but with their peers as well;

therefore, more occasions are created for using the foreign language, particularly to negotiate meaning and solve problems. Related to this, cooperative learning activities provide a meaningful environment for further practice and consequently improve competence in the foreign language.

With regard to the use of the foreign language during pair-and group-work, however, it appears (Nikolov, 1999) that the extent to which learners interact in the target language is determined by students’ familiarity with cooperative learning, task types (free activities versus teacher-controlled tasks) as well as group dynamics. A similar conclusion is supported by Nunan (1992) who suggests that classroom environment and social tasks lend themselves better to cooperative situations. In these terms, there are some good reasons to consider the question of which types of classroom tasks are

beneficial in cooperative learning. Furthermore, while discussing interaction between participants in cooperative situations, Nikolov (1999) correlates learners’ ability or willingness to exchange information in the target language with their level of proficiency, but goes beyond the linguistic reasons to point at social and psychological causes that justify actual behaviour and performance. This consideration emerges from evidence that “belonging to the group is more important for learners than accommodation to classroom norm and the teacher’s expectations (Nikolov, 1999, p.

87).

Another advantage of cooperative foreign language learning is that the common goal to achieve success contributes to the process of learning because students tend to help each other (Crandall, 1999; Gwyn-Paquette & Tochon, 2002; Slavin et al., 1985). Mutual encouragement exists in all cases but the signs of potential assistance can be primarily perceived in mixed-ability groups (Nunan, 1990; Slavin et al., 1985). According to Dörnyei (1997), involvement in cooperative situations presents opportunities for students to facilitate each other’s efforts in terms of exchanging resources, clarification and giving valuable feedback during task-completion. The author points at the significant reduction of stress and anxiety in cooperative learning, as peer support is frequently offered and accepted with ease among peers. This particular aspect of cooperative learning helps students overcome the reluctance to perform in front of the class and provides opportunities for peer correction (Dörnyei, 1997; Nikolov, 1999). In Johnson and Johnson’s terms (cited in Gwyn-Paquette & Tochon, 2002, p. 206) engagement of learners in cooperation with other participants develops through verbalization of explanations, exchanging views, opinions as well as monitoring and giving feedback. Research (Dörnyei, 1997; Gwyn-Paquette & Tochon, 2002) also

suggests that students who experience the cooperative approach need to articulate and communicate their ideas; therefore, the importance of discourse becomes crucial. There is a recognition (Arnold & Brown, 1999; Crandall, 1999) that students improve their language skills, communicative skills and interpersonal skills most of all as a result of collaborative learning. Furthermore, students learn more about the different aspects of the process such as important links, personal relationships and decision-making (Crandall, 1999; Nunan, 1992).

Many other advantages are claimed for cooperation in the process of learning a foreign language. Drawing on investigations of the learning process, Nunan (1992) points out that collaboration in group learning encourages the learners to learn better. The view is supported by Crandall (1999, p. 244) who states that “cooperative learning offers many positive, affective features which encourage language learning”. This is to suggest that collaborative learning provides opportunities for raising students’ awareness of three main areas: the role of the learner, the process of learning and the learning task. If any progress is to be made, knowledge and sufficient understanding of these are obviously essential and the increase of responsibility is desirable (Goddard et al, 2004; Nunan, 1992). As for the issue of responsibility, Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) suggest that learners should be regarded as active rather than passive participants in the process of learning. The discussion shifts to the importance of learners’ responsibility for the input they obtain from teachers which is mainly based on their needs and requests. Within the positive view of group work, Liang (2004) addresses serious attention to students’

perceptions of cooperative learning. Edge (1992a), for example, reminds us that learners learn in different ways and suggests that the expression of thoughts and feelings must be taken into consideration. He places emphasis on speaking which demands organisation

and expression of thoughts, a process promoting learning. In addition, exchanging ideas helps people to communicate with other people.

The real value inherent in cooperation in language learning can be better understood through looking at Kohonen ‘s (1992) experiential theory of learning. This theory offers a more complex understanding of the use of the cooperative learning approach and implies that it is a way to successful learning. In more specific terms, Kohonen (1992, p.

17) focuses especially on learning as “a cyclic process integrating immediate experience, reflection, abstract conceptualisation and action”. This means that personal experience is necessary, as it is the core of learning, but by itself, insufficient. The suggestion involves bringing intellectual and experiential knowledge together.

Experience must be exploited and analysed consciously; therefore, learning also demands reflection (Kohonen, 1992; Crandall, 1999). As the act of interaction in the process of cooperative learning involves further challenge, particularly with respect to simplification, clarification and exemplification, collaboration between students is regarded as an important means for fostering learning.

Trying to classify the learner’s role in the whole process of learning, Kohonen (1992, p.

36) states that ‘experiential learning enables the learner to become increasingly self-directed and responsible for his own learning’. This consideration relates to other new trends (Nunan, 1988; 1989; 1992), for example, as more responsibility is taken, there is recognition of the potential of working cooperatively with students. In practice, information from learners, considered as resource, is used in planning, implementing and evaluating teaching programmes. According to Nunan (1992), this learner-centred

approach and the experiential learning theory indicate the more humanistic directions in foreign language education.

A final area of concern is that many parallels can be drawn between the new understanding of learning and the experiential component of teacher education discussed in section 1.2. The main point is that the current learning approaches, which seek to unite thought and action, can be associated with the attempt in teacher education programmes to bring the theoretical and practical aspects closer. This important question forms the basis of the next section.