Drought-induced tree mortality and forest die-off

Increases in the frequency, duration, and severity of drought and heat stress connected with global climate change could fundamentally change the composition, structure, and distribution of forests. Increased tree mortality and die-offs triggered by drought are well documented for Europe and for temperate and boreal forests of North America (van Mantgem et al., 2009).

Forest mortality in Europe

Examples of forest mortality due to dry and warm conditions in the 1990’s and 2000’s in Europe (Table 1) includes increased death among many tree species in Spain (Penuelas et al., 2001), increased mortality of oak, fir, spruce, and pine species in France after the extreme heat wave and drought during the summer of 2003 (Bréda et al., 2006; Landmann et al., 2006), and increases in mortality of Pinus sylvestris near the species’ range limits in Switzerland and Italy (Dobbertin and Rigling, 2006; Bigler et al., 2006).

Summer drought has been tied with biotic stressors and led to mortality of Quercus robur in Poland (Siwecki and Ufnalksi, 1998), Picea abies in Norway (Solberg, 2004), and Picea obovata in northwest of European Russia (Kauhanen et al., 2008).

1die-off: a sudden sharp decline of a population of animals or plants that is not caused directly by human activity

17

Regionally extensive increase in the mortality of Fagus sylvatica was only reported from France (Ardennes, Vosges), Germany (Baden-Württemberg) (Petercord, 2008) and Hungary (Lakatos and Molnár, 2009).

Table 1: Documented drought and/or heat-induced mortality events in Europe, 1990–

2010 (Allen et al., 2010).

(South Tyrol) 1992 Pinus sylvestris

Lower/southern

(Lower Austria) 1990-1996 Pinus sylvestris, Pinus nigra

Lower edge of

elevational range 27.6-49.2 Stand–

landscape Various insects Cech and Tomiczek (1996) Austria (Tyrol) 1991-1997 Pinus sylvestris Lower edge of

elevational range 10.0-70.0 landscape Various insects Cech and Perny (2000) Italy (Aosta) 1985-1998 Pinus sylvestris Lower/southern

edges of ranges - Landscape–

1998 Fagus sylvatica Middle of ranges 5-30

Subregional;

patchy across

~200.000 ha

non French Forest Health Department (1998–1999)

Norway 1992-2000 Picea abies Patchy across

ranges 2-6.6 Landscape–

Greece (Samos) 2000 Pinus brutia Lower edge of

elevational range - Not reported Not reported Körner et al., (2005);

Sarris et al., (2007)

Austria (Tyrol) 2001 Pinus sylvestris Lower edge of

elevational range - Landscape–

subregional Not reported Oberhuber (2001)

Greece (South,

Switzerland 2003 Picea abies Not reported ~2.0Mm³ timber lost

edges of ranges 7–59 Landscape–

subregional

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(B.-Württemberg) 2003-2006 Fagus sylvatica Not reported ~98.000m³ timber lost

(Northwest) 2004-2006 Picea obovata Patchy 208Mm3 timber lost

Bark beetles Vennetier et al., (2007);

Thabeet et al., (2009)

It is important to outline that Table 1 - contrary to the name of the table - contains mortality events where the drought and heat was only “contributing factor”. This is mainly in association with the die-off of the Pinus species. Furthermore the author uses the “bark beetle”phrase for species, which taxonomically does not belong to the above mentioned group (e.g.: Pissodes spp.).

The rate of mortality could span a wide range from modest and short-lived local increases of background mortality rates to acute, regional or landscape-scale forest die-off.

The temporal pattern of mortality is difficult to interpret because of the lag effect, but the documented data suggest, that die-off events are clearly connected with single extreme events. Mortality due to the decline has been shown to occur years or even decades after the drought stress (Góber, 2005; Bigler et al., 2006).

The dataset from Europe confirms, that drought-related forest mortality has been reported in most cases from the range margins (geographic or elevational) where climatic factors (particularly water) are often limiting (Jump et al., 2009). Greater mortality can occur also on optimum sites within the middle of the distribution range (Horner et al., 2009; Klos et al., 2009), where higher tree density results increased competition for water. Trees in optimum conditions often do not invest in adequate root systems and become hydraulically overextended.

19 Examples from North America

Drought and heat across western North America in the last decade have led to extensive insect outbreaks and large scale mortality in many forest types, affecting ~20 million ha and many tree species from Alaska to Mexico (Raffa et al., 2008). Examples of forest die-offs close to the xeric limit cover millions of hectares of Populus tremuloides (Saskatchewan and Alberta) (Hogg et al., 2008) and Pinus edulis in the Southwestern U.S. (Shaw et al., 2005).

It should be outlined that forests of the above mentioned Pinus species can be found in natural conditions with low or no human impact.

Forest mortality in Hungary

The first large scale forest mortality partly connected to climatic factors was the oak decline² in the late 80’s. Igmándy (1987) reported that the decline of Q. petraea in Hungary began in 1978 in the colline northeast and extended within three years to the whole of the country.

The symptoms of the oak decline were very complex. Macrosymptoms included: crown transparency, yellowing, excessive twig abscission, dieback³ of branches and the whole crown, epicormic sprouts on branches and trunk (Führer, 1998). Oak mortality was originally identified as a disease caused by fungi earlier mainly saprophytic, and turning to virulent, it was later admitted that the primary reason triggering the pandemy was climatic. The total extent and damage of the dieback hitting sessile oak stands in the Northern Mountain Range and in Transdanubia may be assessed to damaging ca. 35% of all stands above the age of 40 years, amounting to a total damage of 2.5 million m³ (Mátyás et al., 2009).

Subregional (Sopron and Kőszeg-mounteains) mass mortality of man-made Picea abies stands started in the early ’90s. The hot and dry summers, the decrease on winter precipitation were favourable for Ips typographus, which produced up to three generations per year. The outbreak of Ips typographus and Pityogenes chalcographus resulted in a strong decrease of this tree species (1990: 1.4%, 2008: 0.7%) and a high volume (~ 800.000 m³) of sanitary cuttings (Lakatos, 1997; Lakatos, 2006).

The mass mortality of beech in Hungary is discussed later.

2.2.2 Plant physiology and biotic agents