Beijing Platform for Action: gender equality for a sustainable world

The end of the 1970s – also identified in the previous chapter as the period of the growing influence of sub-state actors on the processes of the international political arena – came to fruition in 1979 with the adoption of CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women) ⁽INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNIONa n.d.). The Convention not only gives a clear definition about discrimination based on gender but is also

58 considered as a guide for governments to provide gender equality. Also referred to as the international bill of rights for women, the recommendations of CEDAW were carried on during the subsequent follow-up conferences, from which the Beijing conference in 1995 stands out (UNITED NATIONS ENTITY n.d.). Besides elaborating the notion of gender mainstreaming as a main strategy for governments to achieve equality between women and men the twelve areas where greater efforts must be made to eliminate inequalities include women and poverty, education and training for women, women and health, violence against women, women and armed conflict, women and the economy, women in power and decision-making, institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women, human rights of women, women and the media, women and environment and the girl child (UNWOMEN2015). Concerning the evolution of achieving gender equality as also being included in the global 17 Sustainable Development Goals adopted by UN member states in 2015 (UNITED NATIONS n.d.), the report issued by UN Women on the occasion of the 20^th anniversary of the Beijing Conference shed light on the deterioration of women’s rights in certain areas. The report stated that while greater opportunities in education and more active participation in the labour force were available for the weaker sex, measures proved to be insufficient in other areas and women still face discrimination in terms of equal rights. From the point of the major focus of the analysis it is also indispensable to underline that the report names ongoing economic and financial crisis, volatile food and energy prices and climate change as factors responsible for undermining the assurance of equal opportunities for both sexes (UNWOMEN2015). Regarding the Maghreb countries, the political, historical and cultural characteristics that also serve as constraints in front of achieving gender equality can also be listed among the aforementioned factors.

Moreover, the evolution of women’s rights in the Maghreb cannot be separated from the insecurities (e. g. civil war in Algeria in the 1990’s, the breakout of the Arab Spring at the end of 2010) and the dichotomy of the adherence to the Western model of development on the one hand, and to the traditional norms on the other hand.

When approaching the topic of sustainability from the aspect of women’s empowerment it must be highlighted that achieving gender equality is a must to a just and sustainable development both in the economic, social and environmental field. Among them, it is mainly the social pillar where significant efforts (e.g. equal chances in the labour market) should be done in order to ensure sustainability (STEVENS 2010). Another aspect of the topic of sustainability would name value change, political economy, adaptive economics and planning intervention as crucial perspectives to achieving equality between women and men. It is also indispensable to underline that while changes in ideas play an important role in shaping

59 attitudes regarding gender equality, no significant results can take place without pressures coming from the society, economy or the environment, which clearly underline that sustainable development is rather considered to be a political term (LEE-SMITH‒ TRUJILLO1992).

With reference to the main goals of the Beijing Platform for Action, inequalities in the labour market are identified as one of the main obstacles in front of achieving gender equality (CORNWALL– EDWARDS2015). Moreover, the lack of employment opportunities is in close relation with other areas of focus of the Platform where further efforts must be made, including the eradication of poverty or the protection of equal rights for women. According to the Beijing Platform for Action, every government is responsible for ensuring appropriate working conditions for women and putting an end to discrimination. The report issued on the occasion of the 20^th anniversary of the adoption of the Platform to revise the major steps that have been taken so far stated that the gender gap was globally reduced from 28% to 26%.

However, regional disparities and the overrepresentation of women in low-paid jobs still remain crucial problems that require solution. The Beijing Platform for Action identified the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) as being the region affected the most by inequalities in terms of participation in the labour force (56%), and the situation in the MENA countries has not changed until 2012 when this ratio was 53% (UNWOMEN2015).

Concerning the objective of the Platform to ensure wider participation for women in decision-making, the report found that while by 2014 the percentage of women in the parliament had already demonstrated a steady increase (23% globally contrary to 12% in 1995), women are still underrepresented when it comes to high government positions (e.g. speakers of parliament and ministers). From the point of the analysis, it must be highlighted that in 1995 the percentage of women sitting in the national parliaments was the lowest one in the MENA countries (only 4%) compared with other regions. By 2005 this percentage doubled, but except for South Asia the region of the Middle East and North Africa was still below the global average. While by 2014 gender equality in the field of decision-making in the MENA region further improved (17% of the representatives of the parliament were women) (UNWOMEN 2015), women’s participation in the political arena has not achieved the necessary percentage determined by the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, CEDAW (30%) (INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNIONa n.d.). When it comes to the significant increase in women’s political participation we cannot neglect the events of 2011 (widely known as the “Arab Spring”) which also served as a catalyst in terms of women’s empowerment and thus brought about a widespread discourse on women’s rights. It is also indispensable to underline that the evolution of gender mainstreaming shows

60 differences even within the same geographical location, not to mention the extension of the region of North Africa to the Middle East. Therefore, it must be underlined that generalizations cannot be made even within the same cultural scope. According to the up-to-date ranking of IPU (as of 1 January, 2021), with 57 female representatives out of the 217 places in the National Constituent Assembly (NCA), which means a 26.3% female representation, Tunisia anticipates Algeria and Morocco where women make up 26% and 20.5% of the decision-makers in the national parliament (INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNIONb n.d.). Within the framework of the Beijing Platform for Action, states engaged in assuring constitutional and legal reforms and the adoption of quotas both on the national as well as on the international level together with the involvement of women’s organizations.

With regard to the third main focus of the Beijing Platform for Action, i.e. ensuring the possibility for women to control their lives, the report issued on the occasion of the 20^th anniversary of the Action stated that despite of the implementation of significant reforms to improve the marginal position of women discrimination still exists in certain areas, namely in the area of family law that is also relevant from the point of the current analysis. The report also sheds light on the reservations of some states to the CEDAW and on the lack of its universal ratification and implementation as being one of the constraints in front of achieving gender equality. For providing equal rights for both sexes, constitutional and legislative provisions must be removed. These measures include the reform of family laws, nationality laws and laws related to inheritance (UNWOMEN2015). The comparison between Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia examines the major steps governments of these countries have taken to eliminate discriminatory measures in family or personal status laws. Moreover, the essay also touches upon whether the analysed Maghreb counties have made some reservations to CEDAW and if this is the case whether some developments have been made to lift these reservations.

In evaluating the major goals towards achieving gender equality as also determined in the Beijing Platform for Action, the paper highlighted the existence of gap between men and women in terms of possibilities offered by the labour market. Participation in decision-making was also identified as a crucially important area where further efforts must be made, namely in Morocco where the participation of women in the national parliament is relatively low. Finally, the presence of restrictive measures embedded in the national laws of each country is also seen as a field which requires greater attention, namely the reform of family laws. In the framework of the implementation of the major goals of the Beijing Platform for Action the next chapter compares the practices of each Maghreb country in terms of ensuring equal gender rights. The

61 analysis of the evolution of women’s empowerment in this region will contribute to understanding the framework of the paper, i.e. the direction of the gender policy in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia and the long-term consequences of the emergence of sub national actors of decision-makers.

4. The impact of the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action on