MACROECONOMIC STATISTICS
MACROECONOMIC STATISTICS
Sponsored by a Grant TÁMOP-4.1.2-08/2/A/KMR-2009-0041 Course Material Developed by Department of Economics,
Faculty of Social Sciences, Eötvös Loránd University Budapest (ELTE) Department of Economics, Eötvös Loránd University Budapest
Institute of Economics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences Balassi Kiadó, Budapest
MACROECONOMIC STATISTICS
Author: Gábor Oblath
Supervised by Gábor Oblath January 2011
ELTE Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Economics
MACROECONOMIC STATISTICS
Week 6
External and internal balance/imbalance:
international comparisons and decompositions
Part II
Gábor Oblath
The meaning of external imbalance – international comparisons
• Difference in flows relative to GDP (CA, CA+KA, CA+KA+NEO)?
• Changes in stocks relative to GDP?
(dNFA/GDP) (flow-s + others)
• Change in ratios to GDP? (nfat–nfat–1)
• A part of the latter?
– Only debt?
• Gross?
• Net?
Example: US flows and revaluations (KG) and changes in net international investment position
(in % of GDP)
-8%
-6%
-4%
-2%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 f in f lows/GDP Kg_market/GDP dNIIPmarket/GDP
Flows
KG
Introduction: discussion over US BOP – does the US have a CA deficit?
• The idea
CA dNFA = h*NFA + etc.
• Question: can NFA<0, if h*NFA>0
• But if NFA>0, then ΣdNFA ( ΣCA) is also positive – the US has no CA deficit ”dark matter” proposition*/ and debate
(NFI)
*/R. Hausmann–F. Sturzenegger – several articles
The notion of ”dark-matter” (DM) in the BOP of nations: claims
• H–S*/ claim: BOP statistics are false: US has no CA deficit
• Why? Because US NII continuously positive NFA and ΔNFA ( CA) also ”has to be” positive
• ”Implied” CA balance reconstructed in two steps
– Capitalising NII by an arbitrary 5% (P/E: 20)
– Annual change in capitalised NII ”implied” CA
• Difference between actual and implied CA:
exports of ”dark matter” (intangible capital)
*/R. Hausmann–F. Sturzenegger: Global imbalances or bad accounting? The missing dark
matter in the wealth of nations (May, 2006): http://200.32.4.58/~fsturzen/dark_matter_may06.pdf
US net international investment income (NII = net profits and interest)
(million USD)
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000
1990 1991
1992 1993
1994 1995
1996 1997
1998 1999
2000 2001
2002 2003
2004 2005
2006
US: CA and two components: net exports (NX) and net investment income (NII)
(% of GDP)
-7%
-6%
-5%
-4%
-3%
-2%
-1%
0%
1%
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 NII/GDP
CA/GDP NX/GDP
US: net investment income (NII), the CA, and NFA (at current cost and market value) in % of GDP
-24%
-22%
-20%
-18%
-16%
-14%
-12%
-10%
-8%
-6%
-4%
-2%
0%
2%
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 NII/GDP
CA/GDP
NFA_market/GDP NFA_curcost/GDP
The world according Hausmann-Sturzenegger Implication: no global imbalances
Rate of return on market value of US foreign assets (FA) and liabilities (FL)
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
1989 1990
1991 1992
1993 1994
1995 1996
1997 1998
1999 2000
2001 2002
2003 2004
2005 2006 iFL_market
iFA_market
The notion of ”dark-matter”: some critical remarks in defence of statistics
• If BOP statistics inaccurate: why just NII right, if both CA and NFA wrong
• Several plausible/relevant explanations for differences in rates of return on FA and FL: no need to ”invent” new BOP statistics
• Dangerous precedent:
– if your story/theory does not fit the facts
– or statistics (apparently or actually) contradict one another – you can simply construct data corresponding to your preferred
interpretation
• Having said this,
– exports and imports of intangible capital (not covered by statistics) is quite possible under conditions of globalisation,
– identifying and measuring it – constitutes a major challenge for both economists and statisticians.
International comparisons
• The standard indicator of external imbalance: CA/GDP
• However: CA/GDP ratios are unfit for international comparison
• Types of problems
– Technical – Substantive
Comparable BOP statistics
• IMF: IFS and BOPS
http://www.imf.org/external/data.htm
• Eurostat
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/
portal/balance_of_payments/data/database
• HU: MNB
CA/GDP ratios: problems in comparison
• Technical:
– problems with the numerator – problems with the denominator
• Substantive what lies behind external deficits
– Levels
• Gov, or private
• Financing: debt or non-debt (FDI/equity)
– Trends in investments/savings – Sustainability (growth vs. deficits)
Problems with the numerator
• CA vs. CA+KA (NL/NB) – transfers from EU-funds
• Reinvested earnings
• Nominal vs. real (operational) balance
• Revaluations
• Statistical discrepancy (NEO)
Problem 1
CA vs. NL (=CA+KA) (2000–2005 average)
-10%
-9%
-8%
-7%
-6%
-5%
-4%
-3%
-2%
-1%
0%
CZ EST HU PL SK GR ESP PT IRL USA
CA/GDP
(CA+KA)/GDP
CA vs. CA+KA (in % of GDP): CZ, HU, PL
-7%
-6%
-5%
-4%
-3%
-2%
-1%
0%
2005 2006
CA+KA
CA -7%
-6%
-5%
-4%
-3%
-2%
-1%
0%
2005 2006
CA+KA CA
-4,0%
-3,5%
-3,0%
-2,5%
-2,0%
-1,5%
-1,0%
-0,5%
0,0%
2005 2006
CA+KA CA
CZ HU
PL
The role of capital transfers is increasing; most visibly for Poland
Problem 2: reinvested earnings in % of GDP (average 2000–2005)
-12%
-10%
-8%
-6%
-4%
-2%
0%
CZ EST HU PL ESP PT USA
CA/GDP
(CA+KA)/GDP (CA+KA+IRE)/GDP (CA+KA+NRE)/GDP
Problem 3
• Operational vs. nominal
• Importance of real changes in NFA ( CA)
• However: iNFA rNFA+ NFA
Nominal and operational (real) net lending (”from below”: NL= CA+KA+NEO)
in % of GDP
Source: Financial Accounts, Hungary (MNB)
The difference between NL és NL(op): inflation-compensation
-10%
-9%
-8%
-7%
-6%
-5%
-4%
-3%
-2%
-1%
0%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
NL NL(op) infl. komp.
Problem 4
• Capital gains/losses
• Important in case of large stocks (FA, FL) relative to GDP
• Sustained real appreciation/depreciation of currency decreases/increases
debt/GDP ratio
dNFA/GDP:
revaluations and flows (Hungary’s example)
-100%
-80%
-60%
-40%
-20%
0%
20%
40%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2001- 2005
2001- 2002
2003- 2005 Átért+egyéb
CA+KA+NEO
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2001- 2005
2001- 2002
2003- 2005 Átért+egyéb
CA+KA+NEO dNFA
Contributions to dNFA(t)/GDP(t) (%-points)
The structure of dNFA(t) (%) Capital gain
Problem 5
• NEO: statistical error/discrepancy
• Generally assumed: unrecorded capital flows
• But may include unrecorded CA items
• E.g. HU: could have been unrecorded imports (after EU-accession in 2004)
NEO: international comparison
-4,0%
-3,0%
-2,0%
-1,0%
0,0%
1,0%
2,0%
3,0%
Netherlands Hungary Austria Slovenia Poland Spain Latvia Lithuania Estonia UnitedKingdom CzechRepublic
2003 2004 2005
2005I-III 2006I-III
NEO/total current revenues (%)
Problems with the denominator (GDP)
• CA/GDP does not control for the ”real” size of economies
– CA measured at international, – GDP at national prices
• The price level of GDP is lower, the lower the level of development (B–S effect: NT/T sectors)
• The CA/GDP ratio overestimates the relative size of deficits of less developed countries
– CEE–NMS: special problem: extremely low relative price level of public services (no relevance for the size of deficits)
• The proper indicator: CA /Tradables (directly unavailable)
• Proxies:
– CA/GDP at PPP
– CA/external revenues
• CA/Xgs
• CA/current revenues
Relative real GDP and price levels
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
GDP relative price
LV LT
EE PL
SK
HU
CZ
MT PT
SL GR
CY
ES
Per capita GDP (PPS)
Relative GDP price levels and the relative price of goods, services and government services
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
40 50 60 70 80 90
Goods Services Gov. services SK
LT LV CZ PL
HU EE
MT SL PT
GR ES CY
GDP relative price level
CA+KA (=NL) in % of
a) GDP; b) exports of goods and services;
c) total current revenues
-30%
-25%
-20%
-15%
-10%
-5%
0%
CZ EST HU PL SK GR ESP PT
(CA+KA)/GDP (CA+KA)/Xgs (CA+KA)/CFR
CA+KA (=NL) in % of GDP
[GDP a) at current prices; b) at PPP-s]
-9%
-8%
-7%
-6%
-5%
-4%
-3%
-2%
-1%
0%
CZ EST HU PL SK GR ESP PT IRL USA
(CA+KA)/GDP
(CA+KA)/GDP_PPP
Some further problems with simple comparisons of CA/GDP ratios
• Domestic counterpart of the CA balance:
– S – I (S falls or I increases)
– Government vs. private sector (”Lawson doctrine”)
• Financing: debt vs. equity (FDI)
• Sustainability (later)
• Bottom line:
• Avoid rapid judgements based on comparison of CA/GDP ratios
• A complex set of indicators necessary for valid comparisons
International comparisons (a)
Tendencies in total S, I and S-I in % of GDP
Source: AMECO
10%
12%
14%
16%
18%
20%
22%
24%
26%
28%
30%
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
EU-25
Czech Republic Estonia Greece Spain Latvia Lithuania Hungary Poland Portugal Slovenia Slovakia
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
EU-25
Czech Republic Estonia Greece Spain Latvia Lithuania Hungary Poland Portugal Slovenia Slovakia
-18%
-16%
-14%
-12%
-10%
-8%
-6%
-4%
-2%
0%
2%
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
EU-25 Czech Republic Estonia Greece Spain Latvia Lithuania Hungary Poland Portugal Slovenia Slovakia
S
I
S-I
International comparisons (b)
Government savings [S(gov)/GDP]
-6%
-4%
-2%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
EU-25
Czech Republic Estonia
Greece Spain Latvia Lithuania Hungary Poland Portugal Slovenia Slovakia
Source: AMECO
Sustainability: a possible interpretation*/
*/Lane–Milesi–Ferretti (2006)
Decompositions of the change in NFA/GDP
• What is the use?
– Helps understand the dynamics behind the accumulation of net foreign liabilities/assets
• Illustrations based on Hungarian data, 2001–2005 (Source: BOP+Net international investment position, NIIP)
Components of the change in NFA/GDP (nfa) (I)
) 1 (
) 1
( 1 1
1 t t t
t L t t
t A t t
t t
t t
t fl neo egyéb
g g fa r
g g ka r
nfctr nli
nxgs nfa
nfa
r(A)debt
r(A)eq r(L)debt
r(L)eq r(nfa)eq r(nfa)debt
”Dynamic factors”
*/Other items
*/
Implicit nominal property income [interest + profits (i)] and capital gains; and total nominal and real return on FA és FL
-5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
iFA iFL kgFA kgFL
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
i+kg_FA i+kg_FL
Nominal
Real
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
rrA rrL
Components of total nominal and real returns
-5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
kgNFA iNFA (i+kg)NFA
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
rkgNFA rNFA rrNFA
kg nfa
i 1
1 1
Nominal Real
The combined effect of real growth and real returns vs. other factors on the change in nfa
-15%
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
10%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
FA*(rr-g) -FL*(rr-g) Együtt din nfa_t - nfa_t-1
-15%
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
10%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Ndebt*(rr-g) Neq*(rr-g) Együtt din nfa_t - nfa_t-1
The change in nfa:
”dynamic” factors vs. others ( primary balance)
-20%
-15%
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
"dinamikus" "elsődleges" nfa_t - nfa_t-1
Dynamic
Primary
The nfa-stabilising
”primary balance” and the ”primary gap”
-20%
-15%
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
"dinamikus" "elsődleges" stabilizáló elsődleges elsődleges rés nfa_t - nfa_t-1
Dynamic
Primary
Components of changes in nfa (II)
) 1 (
) 1
( 1 1
1 t t t
t L A t
t L t t
t t
t t
t fa neo egyéb
g r nfa r
g g ka r
nfctr nli
nxgs nfa
nfa
Return on liabilities minus growth
Return on assets minus liabilities
NEO+others:
”dark matter”?
X-M
Labour income
Current transfers
Capital transfers
”Real” ”Transfers”
Implicit (HUF) nominal property income, capital gains and returns
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
iFA_debt i_FA_eq iFL_debt iFL_eq
-15%
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
kgFA_debt kgFA_eq kgFL_debt kgFL_eq
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
nrFA_debt nrFA_eq nrFL_debt nrFL_eq
Implicit real returns and nominal and real effective exchange rate of the HUF (%-change; increase: depreciation)
-15%
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
rrFA_debt rrFA_eq rrFL_debt rrFL_eq neer
Quantifying decomposition (cont.)
-15%
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
10%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
neo+egyéb nx_gs+ntr(c+k) fa*(rA-rL)/(1+g) nfa*(rL-g)/(1+g) nfa_t - nfa_t-1
Cumulative changes
8,3%
0,2% -2,0%
-9,8%
-2,7%
-4,6%
-4,2%
-2,6%
-3,7%
-5,6%
-5,3%
0,5%
-1,5%
-3,5%
-0,8%
1,1%
-21,3%
-13,3%
-25%
-20%
-15%
-10%
-5%
0%
5%
10%
kum2001-2002 2001-2003 2001-2004 2001-2005
neo+egyéb nx_gs+ntr(c+k) fa*(rA-rL)/(1+g) nfa*(rL-g)/(1+g) nfa_t - nfa_t-1
International comparison (based on Lane and Milesi-Feretti, 2005)
HU (96–2004 –29,3 –10,5 –52 +1,2 23,4 8,8 23,5