Types of Professional learning

Informal learning refers to the learning that is attained through everyday work and life. It is usually unplanned and unstructured, and it occurs outside any formal learning structures. Typically, it does not result in any formal recognition or any type of certification.

However, it can be used for acquiring formal qualifications (Callanan, Cervantes & Loomis,

¹Positive transfer of training is defined as the degree to which trainees effectively apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained in a training context to the job (Newstrom, 1986 as cited in Cromwell and Kolb, 2004, p. 450).

2011). Contextual reasoning is a primary feature of informal learning, producing tacit and implicit knowledge. The prominent feature of informal learning is its foundation in experience, which is, in the way individuals make sense of their day-to-day lives. Informal learning does not have a design that is imposed by formal learning. Learning is marked by process of inquiry that happens in the form of a reflective conversation with circumstance.

Intrinsic motivation is a key feature of informal learning. (Evans & Waite, 2010) Informal learning gives the learner more control as compared to formal learning, and it can be unplanned or planned. Informal learning usually has a social dimension to it. Informal learning in the workplace involves praxis- the process of action and reflection which takes place in an unceasing feedback loop. In general, informal learning can be thought of as part of growing up and maturing as an adult (Taber, 2009)

Informal learning takes several forms in the workplace. There are fewer visible methods of informal learning which are not essentially acknowledged as learning by employees or by the researchers observing them. Then, there is informal learning that is deliberate in nature and therefore acknowledged and describable by learners.

There are different kinds of informal learning that are described in literature as having the two elements. First, formalized informal learning is an intentional type of learning that can be easily identified as learning by both observers and participants (Wilson & Hartung, 2015). The types of informal learning methods are described below based on the work of Levinsen & Sørensen (2011).

a. “Organized” Informal Learning i. Mentorships

Coaching or mentoring relationships are semi-formally or formally recognized as such by the participants. Mentoring relationships are naturally informal and are not always formally acknowledged by the organization. Informal mentoring relationships run the risk of being ineffective if they do not have in-built special arrangements for supporting the relationships.

These special arrangements include: guidance that is specific to the workplace, adequate preparation for mentee and mentor roles, and time set aside to dedicate to the relationship.

ii. Apprenticeships

Apprenticeships involve the transfer of knowledge between an expert in a skilled field, and a newcomer who is looking to gain some experience within the workplace.

Although apprenticeships represented an early pre-industrial type of informal learning, the idea of the apprenticeship has gained attention in recent years due to the knowledge-based economy (European Union, 2000) and the focus on building communities within the workplace. Within apprenticeships, newcomers are integrated into their chosen profession through communities of practice. Instead of learning from just one master of their craft as in the pre-industrial times, newcomers learn from communities of practitioners. From the individual’s perspective being exposed to real workplace scenarios like apprenticeships has a lot of effects, for example, for students and young people transitioning to working life it supports career decision making and the development of maturity and personal identity (Sweet, 2013) From the educational perspective, work-based learning is a powerful form of pedagogy since it supports the development of basic work habits, problem-solving and learning skills; in addition of developing an initial understanding of skills application in real life situations that demand context interaction that can hardly be reproduced in a classroom (Sweet, 2013) Also, based on a study carried out by OECD (2010) there is a higher probability for youngsters between 15-19 years old of getting employed if they have been involved in any type of work-study situation before leaving school (Hoeckel, & Schwartz, 2010)

iii. Intentional Informal Learning

This type of learning is also known as informal deliberative learning. With this method, workers initiate and structure learning according to their preferences. Learners determine the objectives, time, and place of the learning, and the methods that they will use to monitor the learning process. Tynjälä (2008) describes this type of learning as situations in which there is no defined work-based objective, and learning is the most likely end-product of the process.

b. Unconscious Informal Learning

There are several hidden types of professional learning that are usually hard for employers and employees to acknowledge as learning (McLaughlin, 1990). Described below there is a number of ways researchers have named these types of hidden professional learning methods:

i. Incidental Learning

Incidental Learning is an individual activity yet it can take place in a social environment. In fact, Le Clus (2011) describes incidental learning as an activity that takes place as a result of social processes. Le Clus (2011) refers to such competencies as knowing how to learn, creative thinking, problem-solving, interpersonal skills, leadership effectiveness, communication skills, and ability to work in a team; and they are learned incidentally during social interactions. Tynjala (2008) states that incidental learning produces tacit knowledge.

Tacit knowledge is important for practical intelligence and this leads to professional success.

ii. Tacit Knowledge

Tacit knowledge is a critical component of an improved skill set and success in the workplace. It comes as an outcome of experience over time, and it cannot be easily transferred to newcomers. It is contextual, personal, and cannot always be articulated through speech. Tacit knowledge may be consciously known or unknown to the learner (Le Chus, 2011). Evans and Waite (2010) observe that tacit knowledge is usually known as know-how and it involves sophisticated connections between personal knowledge and skill formation developed through experience. Tacit knowledge is not only a process of knowledge acquisition but also the processing of knowledge. One of the drawbacks of tacit knowledge is that it can easily result in errors since inaccurate evaluations, judgements, inferences, and assumptions are made which are never examined to ascertain their accuracy.

Not all researchers and authors see tacit learning as just an individual activity. Pankhurst (2010) and Li et al. (2009) view tacit knowledge as something which takes place at the organizational level. In this framework, tacit knowledge is knowledge within an organization that has not been stored or captured in some way e.g., knowledge base intranet, documentation, or email. When this type of organizational knowledge is captured, it becomes explicit.

iii. Situated Learning

This type of learning includes tacit learning which is entrenched in daily work activities. It can be contrasted with formal learning, where learning is a separate activity from daily life.

Situated learning is not designed to be a separate activity, but it is a natural aspect of living (Billet, 1996)

iv. Collateral Learning

This is tacit learning which comes from doing something with the lack of the intention to learn something new. It can also be defined as the capacity to ensure that collateral learning is translated across professions and jobs for any individual learner (Herbert, 2008)