Children with learning disabilities are identified by their severe learning problems and their deficient school achievement. Sub-average results in standardized tests of reading, writing and mathematics are the critical criteria. As long as these children perform on average in an intelligence test and there is a significant discrepancy between (normal) intelligence and (sub-average) reading-, writing- and mathematical competencies, the focus is on the disorders of scholastic skills. However, children with sub-average school achievement and sub-average intellectual development are supposed to suffer from intellectual disabilities rather than from learning disabilities. The open question is whether these two groups are characterized by different cognitive functioning. This question is examined in a study in which several functions of working memory were explored. A working memory battery with tasks for the phonological loop, the visual-spatial sketchpad and central executive skills was presented in individual sessions in three specific groups of typically or atypically functioning students. Results reveal an overall deficit in working memory of the two groups with learning disabilities as compared to the control group.
However, unexpectedly, there were no differences between the two disabled groups. This finding does not support the notion of discrepant cognitive functioning due to differences in intelligence of these two groups. In the ongoing discussion about the role of intelligence, especially about the postulated discrepancy between intelligence and school achievement for diagnosis and special education, our findings might lead to rethink the current practice of treating these two groups as fundamentally different.
Working memory and short-term memory in children with Mild Intellectual Disabilities: Strengths and weaknesses
Mariet van der Molen, University Utrecht, Netherlands Johannes Van Luit, University Utrecht, Netherlands Marian Jongmans, University Utrecht, Netherlands
Maurits van der Molen, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands
Working memory is considered crucial for scholastic and cognitive functioning. Not much is known about how it functions in children with mild intellectual disabilities (MID). Therefore, this study focuses on these children’s functioning of verbal and visuo-spatial working memory and of verbal and visuo-spatial short-term memory. Forty-nine children with MID (IQ 55 – 85, mean age 15 years) were compared to 39 typically developing children (mean age 15 years) and to 29 younger typically developing children (mean age 10 years) on a wide variety of working memory and short-term memory tests. The children with MID performed less well on all tests in comparison with the typically developing children of similar age. Compared to the younger typically developing children, the children with MID did worse on Nonword Recall, the Corsi test, Listening Recall and Backward Digit Reacall, but not on Digit Recall, the Visual Patterns test and
the Odd-One-Out. Within the MID group, we found three distinct clusters each performing differently on the administered tests. Children with MID seem to have a specific verbal working memory deficit. However, apparently different subgroups exist, each having its own memory strengths and weaknesses. These findings hold implications for how to communicate to children with MID within and outside the classroom.
Verbal and visuo-spatial working memory in Down syndrome and in Fragile X syndrome Silvia Lanfranchi, University of Padova, Department of Developmental, Italy
Cesare Cornoldi, University of Padova, Department of Developmental, Italy Renzo Vianello, University of Padova, Department of Developmental, Italy
The main aim of this study, is to analyse working memory (verbal, visuo-spatial and control components) in Down and in Fragile X syndromes. In order to analyse them, on the basis of the literature, a battery of three verbal and three visuo-spatial working memory tasks, requiring different degrees of control and suitable for individuals with mental retardation, was composed.
Data show a non homogeneous working memory impairment in the considered syndromes. In fact, the results of the four studies carried out lead to think that in both syndromes some components functioning (visuo-spatial sketch pad in Down syndrome, phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketch pad in Fragile X syndrome) is coherent with mental age, while other component functioning (phonological loop and central executive in Down syndrome, central executive only in Fragile X syndrome) is lower than we would expect on the basis of mental age. Results support also the hypothesis that some of these deficits are syndrome-specifics, while others are a consequence of mental retardation. Moreover, results of study 1 and 2 lead to analyse, in study 3 and 4, the relationship between specific patterns of memory strength and weakness found in Down syndrome and others aspects of the cognitive profile of this syndrome. Results support the hypothesis that the verbal working memory deficit in Down syndrome is independent, in its origin, from the verbal abilities deficit that often characterize this syndrome. However, correlation values between verbal working memory performance and verbal abilities scores show a relationship in Down syndrome. It is possible to hypothesize a reciprocal influence between these abilities. This hypothesis is also supported by many findings in studies carried out with typically developed children.
A 11
28 August 2007 15:00 - 17:00 Room: 0.89 Jedlik
Symposium
Motivation and efficient learning with multimedia or web-based learning environments
Chair: Nathalie Huet, University Toulouse 2, France Chair: Caroline Dupeyrat, University Toulouse 2, France Organiser: Nathalie Huet, University Toulouse 2, France Organiser: Caroline Dupeyrat, University Toulouse 2, France Discussant: Susanne Narciss, University of Dresden, Germany
Self-regulation and students’ autonomous task in a web-based learning environment J. Reinaldo Martinez-Fernandez, Universidad Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain Samuel Rabanaque Agudo, Universidad Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain
This work analyses the relationship between self-regulation processes and the autonomous task participation of undergraduates that studied a specific content course in psychology of attention and perception. The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between self-regulation processes and participation in autonomous task in a web-based learning environment. The participants were 53 Psychology undergraduate beginners from the Universidad Autônoma de Barcelona (Spain). Teaching and learning processes were developed on a web-based learning environment. Afterwards, the students answered a set of on-line questionnaires in order to inform us about their self-assessment of their self-regulatory activities and own participation level. The sample was divided (into low and high self-regulation) based on their self-regulation processes and a function of the cluster analysis. The differences between these two classifications were in constructivist conception of learning, intrinsic orientation, and metacognitive strategies use. The results show that there are significant differences in favour of the high level of self-regulation. The differences were observed in interest, motivation, satisfaction, active performance and learning according to the undergraduates’ self-assessment. Other findings in relation to self-regulation processes showed that: 1) there are intermediate levels in each category about conceptions of learning; 2) there is an intermediate level in the use of metacognitive strategies but the score in planning subscales strategies is significantly higher than in the control-checking subscale; and 3) there is a high level in intrinsic orientation. Additionally, the cognitive variables in the self-regulation construct have significant relationships between each other, in particular the constructivist conception of learning and metacognitive strategies. With regard to motivation, only self-efficacy explains differences in the students’ self-assessment of those who consider themselves active in their learning processes.
The frequency of use of ICT: Impact on motivation toward science Roy Normand, University of Montreal, Canada
Roch Chouinard, University of Montreal, Canada Jesus Vasquez Abad, University of Montreal, Canada
The aim of this study is to examine the relation between the frequency of use of computer (different types of use) and motivational attitudes in science. ICT is omnipresent in the 21st
century school. Students use them in many situations (DeBell and Chapman, 2006). It’s undeniable that ICT have a lot of influence and impact on student academic behaviors. Most recent researches (Beltran, 2006; OECD, 2003) showed that students who used regularly computer or have a computer at home perform better in key school subjects. To achieve the aim of this study, several auto-reported attitudes scales and socio-demographic questions were administered to a sample of about 400 French-Canadian students (boys and girls) from five junior high-schools in grade 8th at the beginning of the school years. Our results showed that student who reported using ICT (personal and educational uses) more often have also better motivational attitudes. Moreover, students that use ICT only for fun use (like email, chatting and playing) have equivalent or lower attitudes than students who rarely use ICT. Interestingly, it’s seems that is not enough to use ICT, but a good variety of use of ICT could be related to good motivational behaviors in science.
Differential effects of a blended learning environment on aspects of motivation and performance Margerete Imhof, University of Frankfurt, Germany
Regina Vollmeyer, University of Frankfurt, Germany
Web-based learning environments are considered to be effective in enhancing both student motivation and student learning. In a blended learning environment, we investigated how the initial motivation of the students and the changes of motivation over time were related to usage and performance in this class. The learning platform based on WebCT contained optional reading material, a mailing function, a discussion forum, self-tests, and a glossary. A sample of 220 students from a teacher training program in a required introductory psychology class was administered the QCM (a questionnaire measuring interest, challenge, subjective probability of success, and anxiety) at the beginning and at the end of the term. Frequency and content of the platform usage were recorded online for the different types of content. Performance was measured in terms of a multiple choice test covering the material of the entire semester. Results show that usage frequency of the web-platform predicts performance for all students. Further analyses suggest that three groups need to be differentiated in terms of motivational state. We found that all aspects of motivation change over time, however with a specific pattern in each group. The groups also differ in terms of content which they preferred to access. The difference in performance level, however, was not significant. The question how this can be explained will be discussed. The practical challenge is how a web-based learning environment can be tailored to the needs of learners with differential motivational orientations, and, in particular, how those students who display high anxiety can be supported to benefit from a web-based learning environment right from the start.
Goal orientations and help-seeking: intentions and actual use of helps in learning statistics on a web site Nathalie Huet, University Toulouse 2, France
Christian Escribe, University Toulouse 2, France Fabrice Noury, University Toulouse 2, France
As noticed by Aleven et al. (2003), help-seeking has been mostly studied in traditional school contexts but not in computer-learning environment. This paper aimed to examine the impact of goal orientation on the intention of the learner to consult computerized assistance and actual use of the assistance suggested on a web site of training of statistics. Forty-nine students in psychology had to solve statistics problems on a web site designed for their course. Before the validation of their answer they could use spontaneously instrumental help such as work-out problems, glossary or on-line course of statistics. In case of failure, they received automatically a feedback which suggests them to use instrumental help or executive help. Achievement goals were assessed by using the P.A.L.S (Migdley & al. 2000). The intention of the learner to use instrumental
assistance, executive assistance or intention to avoid assistance was evaluated by a questionnaire.
Results showed for the intention to use assistance that: (1) Mastery goals were positively associated with instrumental assistance and influenced negatively executive assistance, (2) Performance approach goals and performance-avoidance goals influenced positively executive assistance, (3) Performance approach goals and performance-avoidance goal influence positively intention to avoid assistance. For the actual help, the results show that (1) Mastery goals were positively associated with instrumental assistance before feedback and influenced positively executive assistance, (2) Performance-avoidance goal influence negatively executive assistance.
Finally, only a significant relationship was found between intention to use instrumental assistance and the actual use of instrumental assistance. But this relation was mainly due to mastery goal.
Future research should investigate the effects of goal orientations on the differences existing between the intentions to use assistance and to use actual assistance in ILE.
A 12
28 August 2007 15:00 - 17:00 Room: 4.95
Symposium
Working memory and individual differences in arithmetic
Chair: Joke Torbeyns, K.U.Leuven, Belgium Organiser: Joke Torbeyns, K.U.Leuven, Belgium Organiser: Bert De Smedt, K.U.Leuven, Belgium
Discussant: Maria Chiara Passolunghi, University of Trieste, Italy
Number and arithmetic are essential components of our everyday life. Impairments in the development of children’s numerical and arithmetic skills consequently put serious constraints on their functioning, not only in school but also in out-of-school contexts. Therefore, cognitive and educational psychologists have extensively studied the variables that might influence the development of these skills. In particular, working memory has been put forward as an important cognitive factor that contributes to children’s development in number and arithmetic (LeFevre et al., 2005; Pickering & Phye, 2006). This symposium covers five empirical studies and one discussion paper that aim at deepening our understanding of the relation between children’s working memory competencies and (the development of) their mathematical skills. The papers cover various aspects of children’s working memory: the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (i.e. short-term memory storage), the central executive, speed of processing, and speed of counting. The papers also address different sub-domains of mathematics education, ranging from single-digit addition to multi-digit arithmetic and context problems. Furthermore, the relation between children’s working memory capacities and mathematical skills is analysed in both normally achieving children and children with mathematical difficulties. The authors use diverse and sophisticated methods for gathering and analysing data, such as the ability-level match design, the dual-task paradigm, the choice/no-choice method, the integration of correlational and experimental research methodologies, and targeted interventions. Next to these theoretical and methodological contributions, all papers clearly discuss the educational significance of the results and offer guidelines for the optimisation of current practices in mathematics instruction.
Differential influences of working memory and basic fact knowledge on measures of arithmetic achievement in fourth-graders
Dietmar Grube, Georg-August-Universität Gottingen, Germany Ulrike Weberschock, Georg-August-Universität Gottingen, Germany
Considerable evidence supports the idea that arithmetic performance is influenced by working memory and by basic arithmetical fact knowledge. This position is supported by many studies that show correlational relationships between arithmetic test achievement on the one hand and working memory measures and simple arithmetic (basic facts) scores on the other hand. However, does this position hold independent of how arithmetic performance is assessed, i.e. does it hold for every index of arithmetic performance in equal measure? In the present study the relationships between arithmetic performance and working memory / basic fact knowledge were explored taking four different task demands of arithmetic performance into consideration. Working memory capacity was assessed using memory span forward and backward representing phonological loop and central-executive functioning, respectively. Basic fact knowledge was quantified by measures of addition and subtraction with sums/numbers smaller than 20. Data were collected from 43 fourth-graders at the beginning of the school year. Correlations between the four arithmetical indices ranged from zero to moderate size. Further correlational analyses showed no influence of phonological working memory on arithmetic performance. Moreover, the intensity of influences of both central-executive working memory and basic fact knowledge depended on specific arithmetical task demands. It is concluded that specific arithmetic task demands do not reflect a unitary ability and are not influenced by the same factors in equal measure.
Strategy use, working memory and thinking aloud during the solution of multi-step arithmetic problems in children with or without math difficulties
Ernest C.D.M. van Lieshout, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands
The main objectives of the present study were: (a) to study the influence of experimental variation in WM load by manipulating problem presentation duration on math performance, errors due to forgetting and strategy use, (b) to find evidence that math performance of children with poor math achievement perform poorly because of low WM resources and (c) to study the effect of thinking aloud on math performance. Forty-eight pupils were selected from grade 8 of Dutch elementary schools. Half of them formed the high math ability (HMA) group whereas the other half formed de low math ability (LMA) group. The mean age of the participants was 10.2 years. The pupils were presented with a measure for working memory and 40 addition and 40 subtraction problems (e.g.
45 – 28 =). The problems were either presented while the participant was reading the problem or until the child gave its answer. Further, the child was asked to solve the problem aloud or silently.
The response times, accuracy scores, strategy frequencies and error types were subjected to (M)ANOVAs. Short problem presentation led to significant less correct answers and longer response times than a long presentation, especially during the loud verbalization condition. The overt verbalization could have disrupted the phonological loop, in which the problem information should be preserved. The LMA group appeared to suffer more from a shorter problem presentation than the HMA group in terms of accuracy, response times, execution of a WM taxing solution strategy and errors due to forgetting, which suggest that for the former group less memory resources were left for the calculation process. This conclusion was supported by a significant negative correlation between the degree of interference of short presentation duration and the size of the backward digit span.
The development of strategy use in elementary-school children: working memory and individual differences
Ineke Imbo, Ghent University, Belgium
Andre Vandierendonck, Ghent University, Belgium
The present study tested the development of working-memory involvement in children’s arithmetic strategy selection and strategy efficiency. To this end, an experiment – in which the dual-task method and the choice/no-choice method were combined – was administered to 10-, 11-, and 12-year-old children. The dual-task method enabled us to obtain arithmetic performance data under two conditions: one without an additional working-memory load and one in which the executive component of working memory was loaded. The choice/no-choice method enabled us to obtain unbiased data on both strategy selection and strategy efficiency. We also obtained several individual-difference variables from each child, such as short-term memory span, processing speed, arithmetic skill, gender, and math anxiety. The results showed that working memory was needed in order to execute all strategies (retrieval, transformation, and counting) efficiently.
Working memory was not needed in strategy selection though. Importantly, the ratio between available working-memory resources, on the one hand, and arithmetic task demands, on the other hand, changed across age. More frequent retrieval use, more efficient memory retrieval, and more efficient counting processes reduced the working-memory requirements. However, the decrease in working-memory involvement was not related to age-related increases in the efficiency of transformation processes or to age-related increases in the efficiency of general processes (e.g., encoding stimuli and pronouncing answers). Strategy efficiency and strategy selection were also modified by individual differences such as processing speed, arithmetic skill, gender, and math anxiety. Short-term memory capacity, on the other hand, was not related to children’s strategy selection or strategy efficiency. It is concluded that working memory plays a significant role in children’s arithmetic performance. However, as children grow older, fewer working-memory resources are needed. Finally, the importance of individual differences in arithmetic problem solving provides interesting ideas for future research.
Working memory and mathematical disabilities: evidence from Velo-Cardio-Facial syndrome?
Bert De Smedt, K.U.Leuven, Belgium Ann Swillen, K.U.Leuven, Belgium Lieven Verschaffel, K.U.Leuven, Belgium Pol Ghesquiere, K.U.Leuven, Belgium
It has been hypothesized that mathematical disabilities (MD) are due to impairments in working memory. In the present study, we examined this association between working memory and math impairment in children with a genetic disorder known to be at risk for the development of MD, namely children with Velo-Cardio-Facial Syndrome (VCFS). More specifically, we investigated whether the MD of these children are due to deficits in working memory. Performance of twenty-five children with VCFS (age range: 6 – 12 years) was compared with a carefully selected individually matched control group. All children completed assessments of various mathematical abilities (single-digit arithmetic, multidigit arithmetic and word problem solving) as well as measures of working memory. Children with VCFS performed significantly slower on single-digit addition and subtraction and were significantly less accurately in solving multidigit calculations and word problems. They did not differ from controls on the highly retrieval based multiplication task, which suggests that fact retrieval is preserved in children with VCFS. Thus, the difficulties of children with VCFS in mathematics appear to be mainly of a procedural nature. Turning to working memory, children with VCFS performed significantly higher on the phonological loop
tasks. They scored lower than controls on the visuospatial sketchpad measures and listening span, but these differences disappeared when group differences in IQ were taken into account. Children with VCFS did not differ from controls on the central executive measures digit span backward and counting span. In sum, working memory could not give a satisfactory account of the math difficulties seen in children with VCFS. These data leave open the possibility that MD in VCFS might be due to a domain-specific deficit, for example in the representation of magnitudes. Such a hypothesis remains speculative and thus an interesting candidate for future research.
Bridging the gap between working memory research and teaching approaches in mathematics education
Sarah Hopkins, University of Western Australia, Australia Celeste de Villiers, St Stephen’s School Carramar, Australia
State-wide assessments continue to uncover a significant number of students who are not achieving appropriate levels of numeracy before entering secondary education. We argue that a critical but overlooked contributor to numeracy achievement is the ability to retrieve simple addition facts. Research has identified a subset of low-achieving students in mathematics who will not develop a reliance on retrieval for simple addition problems but will continue to use a counting-on strategy despite many years of practice. Reform practices in mathematics education do not address this problem with retrieval experienced by some students. In this study an intervention for promoting a reliance on retrieval for simple addition was pilot-tested. Ten students participated in a five week program designed to increase counting speed during simple addition performance. The effectiveness of the intervention in producing an increased reliance on retrieval was assessed using a multiple baseline across participants design. Preliminary results indicate that the intervention improves counting speed and is likely to improve the probability of retrieval. The pilot-test is part of a larger study to identify the prevalence of retrieval problems among students who do not achieve appropriate levels of numeracy before entering secondary education and to investigate whether numeracy outcomes improve for initially low achieving students if retrieval problems are addressed.
A 13
28 August 2007 15:00 - 17:00 Room: 0.81 Ortvay
Symposium
Researching teachers’ competences in multi-ethnic classrooms:
perspectives, methodology and implicat
Chair: Dolly van Eerde, Freudenthal Institute, Utrecht University, Netherlands Organiser: Dolly van Eerde, Freudenthal Institute, Utrecht University, Netherlands Discussant: Ed Elbers, Utrecht University, Netherlands
Researching teachers’ competences in multi-ethnic classrooms: perspectives, methodology and implications. The classrooms of our schools are changing. In many countries all over the world there is an increasing diversity of students in classes, often due to migration. Teachers of multi-ethnic classes have to deal with the social, cultural and linguistic heterogeneity of their students.
They are challenged to develop a sensible pedagogy for teaching and learning in order to
understand and interact with all the students in their class. The symposium brings together the findings of four multi methods studies from different points of view allowing a discussion about teacher competences in multi-ethnic classrooms. In the first paper Hirst and Brown conceptualise diversity as socially constructed and competences as being constrained and enabled by institutional and social practices. The data of two cases studies show how middle school teachers’ knowledge of diversity influenced their pedagogical practices. The second paper by Cesar and Borges is a meta-analysis of the results of two research projects aimed at promoting more inclusive learning settings in multicultural classes. By analysing teachers practices and accounts, competencies for intercultural education come into sight. The third paper by Den Brok and colleagues addresses the identification of teachers’communicative competencies in multicultural classes. A series of case studies in primary, secondary and higher education provided an empirical foundation for the formulation and specification of teacher competencies in multicultural settings. In the fourth paper Hajer explores teachers’ competences from a view that integrates language and content learning, by analysing teachers’ activities and ideas about language proficiency, language learning and their own role. Her data show a close connection between pedagogical relations and the development of content-integrated approaches and a pattern in the development of teachers’ commitment, both in thinking and acting in their classrooms.
Making the teacher ‘competent’: Teacher competences and classroom diversity Elizabeth Hirst, Griffith University, Australia
Raymond Brown, Griffith University, Australia
Classrooms around the world are becoming increasingly diverse as a result of increasing patterns of trans-national mobility and migration. Diversity is often theorised in terms of the differences and background characteristics that students bring with them into educational settings. These characteristics are generally considered to be pre-given stable traits and specific cultural capabilities. In order to be effective, teachers are expected to develop a variety of competences in order to understand their students and consider these differences in planning lessons and making content available to all. The goal is to fit classroom pedagogy to the needs of different students.
This paper addresses two key issues implied in this approach. Firstly, the teacher is often constructed as conduit of pedagogy, and diversity in terms of teachers is largely neglected other than the differences in experience, for example between pre-service, beginning and experienced teachers. When diversity is theorised as emergent and socially constructed in the context of institutional, social and linguistic practices, rather than being a stable background variable,
‘difference’ between teachers and between students is seen as contingent on the social and institutional practices of schooling. Secondly, and building on this understanding of diversity, how teachers are ‘made different’ by institutional and social practices has an impact on the teachers’
performance of specific classroom competences. Competences are considered as being constrained and enabled by these practices. This issue of teacher difference and teacher competences are examined in the light of data gathered in two projects, a nine month ethnographic study of a middle school second language classroom taught by an Indonesian teacher, and a more recent project where data was generated through interviews with middle school teachers about their understandings of diversity and how this knowledge impacted on their pedagogical practices.