V. Radiation Hazards and Personnel Safety
3. Other Safety Precautions
In addition to the procedures discussed above for preventing over
exposure to external radiation, a number of other precautions are neces
sary in working with radioactive materials. These precautions serve to minimize or prevent ingestion or inhalation of radioactivity and to avoid careless spreading of radioactive materials outside the working area.
Three very broad rules cover the whole area of safety: (1) wear ade
quate protective clothing, (2) keep the radioactive material in proper containers, and (3) perform routine surveys of radiation and radioactive contamination.
Before considering these safety precautions in more detail, it is useful to define the relative hazards of various radioactive materials. From the standpoint of their hazard to human beings when taken internally, radio
active materials may be considered to be poisons; and, as in the case of chemical poisons, they vary in their toxicity. An idea of their relative toxicity may be gained by reference to their maximum permissible body burdens as listed in NBS Handbook 69 (137). A very useful table is given in NBS Handbook 42, which permits one to evaluate the degree of hazard for a number of common radioisotopes (134). This table is reproduced in Table VIII. Here the radioisotopes are divided into three groups (slightly hazardous, moderately dangerous, and very dangerous), and the amounts considered as low, intermediate, or high level in laboratory work are given for each group. The units of radioactivity used in the table are the curie, which is 3.7 χΙΟ1 0 disintegrations per second, the millicurie (mc) which is 10~3 curie, and the microcurie (^c) which is IO-6 curie. It is interesting to note, as an example, that 1 mc of Na24 is a low-level quantity, whereas 1 mc of Sr90 is considered a high-level quantity.
Table VIII is useful in evaluating the degree of precaution required in working with radioactive materials. Some employers, in fact, designate their laboratories as high level, intermediate level, or low level and set up safety regulations specific for each one. In the area of protective clothing, for example, low-level work may require only a laboratory coat, safety glasses, and rubber gloves, whereas high-level work would require coveralls, safety glasses, rubber gloves, and shoe covers. In work with radioactive powders, a face mask should be added to prevent inhalation of the powder. The purpose of the protective clothing is not only to avoid inhalation or ingestion of radioactivity but also to prevent contamination of the worker's body or his street clothing with
radio-T A B L E V I I I
RELATIVE HAZARDS OF RADIOACTIVITY ABSORBED INTO THE BODY0*6
Activity scale
I I . Moderately dangerous H3, C1 4, P3 2, N a2 2, S3 5, Activity to be handled in laboratory
1 curie
a Safe handling of radioactive isotopes. Natl. Bur. Std. (U.S.) Handbook 42 (1949).
& Selected radioisotopes grouped according to relative radiotoxicity, with the amounts
considered as low, intermediate, or high level, in laboratory practice.
activity so that he will not carry the contamination outside the labora
tory and endanger other people. For this reason the protective clothing is left either in the laboratory itself or in an adjacent locker room and is not worn outside. The worker may even be required to shower before leaving the area.
Proper containment of the radioactivity is essential to avoid spread of contamination and to prevent ingestion or inhalation. When not in use the materials should be sealed in a tight container and stored in a designated location posted with signs to warn others of the presence of radiation. All work with radioactivity should be done in a laboratory designed for that purpose, and inside the laboratory it is done in a well-ventilated hood, in a glove box, or in a remote facility such as the junior cave mentioned previously. Very little work is done out on an open bench top, except possibly with very low levels of activity. Very high levels are handled in hot cells. Radioactive powders, particularly at intermediate or high levels, should be handled in glove boxes, for powders can easily be spread around without the worker's realizing it. Great care should
also be used in handling liquids to avoid splashing or spilling, and any spills should be promptly cleaned up.
In spite of all the precautions taken, contamination of the laboratory and the worker may still occur, so routine surveys are important. When
ever an individual leaves a laboratory, he should check his clothing, hands, and shoes for the presence of radioactivity. A radiation monitor placed at the door of each laboratory is useful for this purpose. When a job is finished, the area where it was done should be checked for contamination. This is best done by taking smears, i.e., wiping each surface (the floor or the hood button, for example) with a small disk of filter paper and assaying the radioactivity picked up by the paper.
Routine, periodic surveys of the entire laboratory in this manner are a good precaution to exercise. In addition, any materials taken from the laboratory should be smeared to be certain that they are not contaminated.
VI. Conclusion
From this discussion of the effects of radiation on various materials it is hoped that the nonspecialist will get some useful, practical informa
tion as well as a feeling for the complexity of the subject. This is a comparatively new field. Some facts have been established, many ob
servations need further confirmation, and, of course, an immense amount of new information can be expected to evolve in the next few years from space research, reactor operations, and continued radiation research.
Attention has been given particularly to the destructive or deleterious effects of radiation on materials. This is caused partly by the need to know how to guard against the destructive effects, as when using critical materials of construction and for personal safety, and to a greater ex
tent because most of the available information is in this category. How
ever, radiation can have a useful effect on some materials under what now seems like very special conditions. Its use in sterilization, preservation of foods, treatment of cancer, gene treatment, etc., are rather well known and have purposely been kept outside this discussion. In addition, some useful applications have been found in making plastics of desired prop
erties and in increasing activity of some catalysts. As has been men
tioned, radiation effects are more pronounced in organic materials than in metals, and the time of treatment to secure a desired effect may be short enough to be of practical use. The change in color of a white diamond to a green or certain other color by controlled radiation has been cited. Desirable changes in metals are less obvious. Although im
provement in some properties can be obtained, the time to effect the change, the formation of radioactive by-products, and the expense
indi-cate general impracticability. Even so, some intriguing transmutation possibilities may exist. The formation of a 2% tungsten-tantalum alloy by prolonged irradiation of tantalum and the presence of several per cent of platinum group metals as fission fragments in irradiated uranium are indications, as has been mentioned.
An important by-product of investigations on the effect of radiation on materials has been the support given to basic research on materials structure. Radiation is another important tool to aid the physicist, chemist, and metallurgist to produce structural defects or changes, which may lead to the means necessary for their removal. Future work with radiation can be expected to define more closely how various materials are affected, to add further to basic knowledge of the structure of materials, and hopefully to find more useful applications.
R E F E R E N C E S
In addition to technical journal and book references, the following sources are important and may be useful for further information:
a. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission reports are available from:
Office of Technical Services U. S. Department of Commerce Washington 2 5 , D. C.
b. Proceedings from either the first or second Geneva conference on the peaceful uses of atomic energy are available from:
United Nations Publications United Nations Headquarters New York, New York c. Canadian reports are available through:
Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.
Chalk River Ontario, Canada
d. United Kingdom reports may be purchased from:
Her Majesty's Stationery Office e. ASTM publications are available from:
American Society for Testing & Materials Headquarters 1 9 1 6 Race Street
Philadelphia 3, Pennsylvania
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