ambitions that aim at avoid failing this important exam is a typical example of a prevention-focus instrumental reason.
Besides the Ideal L2 Self and the Ought-to L2 Self the scale of Parental Encouragement formed also part of the Ukrainian language motivation construct. Parental support might be to some extent related to parental expectations. Kao and Tienda (1995) for instance report parental expectations that centre around ‘upward intergeneration mobility’.
Besides, Phalet, et al. (2004) also conclude that minority parents attribute more importance to academic achievement than majority members. Thus, it can be concluded that in the present case minority parents see a strong link between Ukrainian language learning and academic, professional advancement.
A fourth scale included in the regression model was Attitude Towards Learning the L2.
Donitsa-Schmidt, et al. (2004) also found attitudes and parental encouragement to be the predictors of motivation to study Arabic. Besides, attitude is perceived to be the ‘messenger’
of learning experiences, parental behaviours and teaching practices in the motivation constructs (Kormos & Csizér, 2010). Thus, language learning attitude is a multi-faceted construct that by incorporating external incentives (coming from the domain of family or school) affects L2 motivation.
In sum, the Ukrainian language motivation model found strong support for Dörnyei’s theory (2005). A dominant position is attributed to the Ideal L2 Self in the construct. Contrary to previous findings the Ought-to L2 Self also had strong predictive power, not only in explaining motivated behaviour but in affecting the Ideal L2 Self, too. Learning Experience was found to have explanatory power as a rather significant element of the Ideal L2 Self.
VI.2. Research question #2
What are the most dominant components that affect the English motivational self system of Hungarian minority school-leavers in Transcarpathia?
The most dominant element of the English language system was the Ideal L2 Self, which is a finding that can easily be embedded in previous pieces of motivation research (e.g.:
Csizér & Lukács, 2010; Dörnyei, et al., 2006; Kim, 2009; Kormos, et al., 2011; Ryan, 2009).
The presence of the ideal self can be associated with the learners’ desire to be members of
‘imagined international communities’, to develop a cosmopolitan identity, or simply to access a tool that helps in realizing one’s future goals (Lamb, 2004; Kormos & Csizér, 2010; Ryan, 2006).
The Ideal L2 Self together with Attitude Towards L2 Learning were found to be the most important predictors of motivation in the case of Hungarian and Swedish learners, too (Alastair, 2009; Kormos & Csizér, 2008). In spite of the fact that both scales were included in the Ukrainian language motivation system, as well, the role of attitudes seems to be more significant in relation to English. Knowing that English is mainly learnt within instruction settings, it can easily be understood that learners rely more on their attitudes in visualizing their future self, a significant proportion of which comes from their language learning experiences.
But as one of the interview respondents claimed, friends can also influence attitudes, especially towards learning (cf. Nelson & DeBacker, 2008). Maehr (1991) found a relationship between the influence and opinion of friends with achievement motivation, which might also explain why the Friends scale is included in the English motivation construct.
Another possible explanation for the inclusion of Friends in the model might be an underlying relationship between Friends and the Written Language Use scale. Compared to previous findings among Transcarpathian minority learners, the mean of the Written Language
Use scale increased (Henkel, 2010). It might be linked with the fact that access to internet facilities has become more widespread. Thus, more and more learners started to be involved in opportunities offered by the internet that required the use learners’ productive skills, i.e.
writing. Various chat services, community websites that help in establishing regular contacts with foreigners can be mentioned among such opportunities (Kormos & Csizér, 2007). Taken the influential role of friends, classmates and peers in late adolescents a strong relationship between friends’ opinion and learners’ choice of making use of internet-provided facilities can be established.
The last scale of the model is the Ought-to L2 Self scale. The appearance of this scale among the significant factors affecting motivation can be directly linked with the ‘international posture’ very often associated with English (Yashima, 2002). One of the interview respondents referred to the ‘international posture’ in a way that English knowledge would provide a ‘point for outbreak’ for minority learners. Another possible reason touches upon the instrumental benefits associated with English language knowledge, which in turn forms part of the Ought-to L2 Self (Dörnyei, 2005). Respondents of the interview study listed the following instrumental reasons for learning English: getting good marks, to understand computer games or user’s manuals.
To sum, Dörnyei’s model (2005) found only partial support in the English motivation system of Transcarpathian learners. The presence of the Ideal L2 Self and the Ought-to L2 Self was reinforced but Learning Experience the third dimension was not included in the model explaining language motivation. However, an indirect influence of the scale through the attitudinal scale might be hypothesized (Kormos & Csizér, 2010).
VI.3. Research question #3
What are the similarities and differences between English and Ukrainian motivational self systems among Transcarpathian Hungarian minority school-leavers?
Three scales were parts of the models explaining Ukrainian and English language motivation. The first and most dominant among them was the Ideal L2 Self. Thus, it can be concluded, that regardless of the language to be studied Ideal L2 Self plays an important role in language motivation. Parental support, the ought-to self, perceived importance of the language, and direct contact with speakers of the language seemed to be the elements of both ideal self constructs.
However, the Ought-to L2 Self also appeared as a separate and significant predictor of motivation to learn both Ukrainian and English. Consequently, the presence of instrumental goals in connection with language learning was reinforced. Dörnyei (2005) associated the Ideal L2 Self with more internalized instrumental motives, whereas he connected more external instrumental reasons to the Ought-to L2 Self. Accordingly, the predictive power of both the ideal and the ought-to self in the motivation models point to the presence and affective role of more and less internalized instrumental motives in the constructs of Ukrainian and English motivation.
The third factor was the Attitude towards Learning the L2 scale, which is a frequent factor in language motivation models (Dörnyei, et al., 2006; Gardner, 2006; Gorham &
Millette, 1997). As it was already noted attitude might be perceived as an umbrella term that comprises perceptions of learning experiences, of teachers’, parents’, and friends’ behaviour, respectively. It is also empirically evident that attitude together with other factors can directly or indirectly affect language motivation.
Attitude together with the ought-to self was found to be two complementary aspects of the ideal self which in turn was found to be a significant predictor of motivation (Csizér &
Dörnyei, 2005a; Dörnyei, et al., 2006). Attitude together with the ideal self was found to be a predictor of language motivation (Kormos & Csizér, 2008). Attitude together with parental support explained a rather dominant proportion in the motivation construct of Arabic learners (Donitsa-Schmidt, et al., 2004). In the present study not only attitude but the other three scales can also be found to be significant predictors of motivation.
It should be mentioned, however, that Parental Encouragement is evidenced only in the Ukrainian language motivation model. In the English construct another milieu-related scale became to be dominant, i.e. Friends. Thus, both attitude and milieu remained but there turned out to be a difference in terms of significant others affecting the learners’ motivation.
A further difference between the two models was the Written Language Use scale. It was included in the English construct, but it did not play significant role in state language motivation for learners of a developing country. It was hypothesized that the main device that provides opportunities for written language use is the internet, which mostly benefits users of the English language rather than the Ukrainian ones.
In sum, two dimensions of Motivational Self SystemTheory seemed to be present in both motivation models explaining Ukrainian and English language motivation, respectively.
Both the Ideal L2 Self and the Ought-to L2 Self turned out to be significant predictors of motivation. But the third dimension, i.e. Learning Experience did not gain explanatory power in learners’ language motivation.
VI.4. Research question #4
How do educational specialists view Hungarian minority learners’ attitude and motivation to learn Ukrainian and English?
There are two points that coincided in the data obtained from two different sources. The first is the presence of instrumental reasons for language learning in both datasets. Confirming the findings of the questionnaire study, respondents of the interview project also listed several instrumental reasons that affect learners’ motivation to learn Ukrainian and English. They connected better job opportunities, good marks and other pragmatic values (e.g.: understanding lyrics, computer games, manuals) to English motivation, whereas they named environment-specific instrumental (e.g.: passing the entrance exam, get understood in offices, obtain a driving license) values regarding Ukrainian only. However, they talked about integration only with reference to Ukrainian.
Another point of interest (that appeared only in connection with Ukrainian) might be that respondents referred to the concept of ‘awareness’. Awareness of the need to know Ukrainian for teachers, parents, learners was emphasized, that could be associated with an internalized need for learning the state language in the present sample. As it can be seen from the results, such type of awareness already can be observed in the Ukrainian language motivation construct of the participants, which shows a common point drawn from the two data sources.
Respondents of the interview study attributed huge roles to language teachers. They claimed that language teachers affect the learners’ future visions to a great extent by communicating perspectives, opportunities that language knowledge offers to the learners. The participants also highlighted teachers’ role in collecting success stories so as to keep learners’
ideal self as a vivid image, which opinion is shared by Dörnyei (2009), too.
Similarly, participants talked a lot about the deficiencies of the language teaching process. They frequently attributed learners’ low level of language knowledge to the lacks of language education management. Both Ukrainian and English educational specialists argued for fundamental changes in the language teaching process.
Lack of direct reference to and numerous misunderstanding of the concept of the Ideal L2 Self might suggest that the participants themselves do not have a straightforward vision that can be offered for minority learners. In the case of Ukrainian language motivation the participants try to substitute the notion of the ideal self with plans, ambitions that learners should have after finishing secondary school and frequently refer to the teacher as a source of inspiring future ideas. Interestingly, the participants form requirements even though they themselves cannot describe learners’ idealized Ukrainian possible self.
In the case of English language motivation the situation is less promising. Besides some generalizations, participants could not come up with valid examples for demonstrating the real benefits of English knowledge in the long run. One of the respondents even admitted that she is not aware of the advantage that English knowledge might give to Transcarpathian Hungarian learners.