Knight and his colleagues developed a model for understanding the professional learning of teachers in higher education, based on their research at UK Open University. The top three responses from teachers about general professional formation were:
1. Mainly on-the-job learning – by doing the job (these engagements make the stron-gest contribution to professional development);
2. Their own experiences as students strongly influenced them;
3. There is also a strong element of learning through conversation with others, com- plemented by workshops and conferences (Knight, Tait & Yorke 2006). Based on research findings, they define four modes of learning from the linkage of intention- ality and types of learning (see Table 1).
Types of learning
Intentionality Formal Non-formal
Intentional Processes: learning that follows a curriculum. May involve in- struction and certification. Out-comes: greater or lesser mastery of curriculum objectives.
Processes: reflection, self-directed read-ing groups, and mentorread-ing. No pre-set curriculum. Outcomes: formation of explicit understandings of achieve-ment, often associated with an inten- tion to build upon them.
Non-intentional Processes: learning from the
hidden curriculum”—learning about the logic-in-use (as op- posed to the espoused logic of the prescribed curriculum). Out- comes: unpredictable.
Processes: learning by being and doing in an activity system.
Outcomes: unpredictable. In some cases, settings become so familiar that learning stops and unlearning may take place.
Table 1. Intentional and non-intentional, formal and non-formal learning (Knight et al. 2006) The identified forms of learning reflect the multifaceted aspect of professional learning regarding teaching, which can be supported in various ways both formally and informally.
Based on an extensive literature review, Pill (2005) identified then described four methodol- ogical models in supporting the development of new teachers in higher education:
• reflective practitioner: supports the connection of theory and practice in professional
INSTRUCTIONAL DEvELOPMENT OF DOCTORAL STUDENTS...
• action research: professional development that is linked to researching can provide a sufficient basis for expert academic knowledge;
• from being a beginner to becoming an expert: supports the different forms of encoura-ging the learning process, depending on practical experience;
• metacognitive approaches: conscious development of different areas of professional knowledge (self-knowledge, co-knowledge, skills etc.).
Figure 1 shows the similarities and differences between the models. The left-hand column, including the reflective practitioner and metacognitive approaches, focuses more on the individual professional while the approaches from the right hand column work primarily through professional practice by external events. At the same time, moving from the top lines toward the bottom lines of the diagram indicates the evolution of thought processes from the implicit toward a more explicit thought processes, which are known to the pro-fessional and can be articulated.
Figure 1. The relationship between the four models of professional development (Pill 2005) Some programs were developed purposefully for supporting doctoral students or early ca- reer teachers in their professional development as teachers. The Teaching Advantage program (Greer, Cathcart & Neale 2016) applied the theoretical framework of Cognitive Ap- prenticeship Theory (Collins 1991), which is a theory of social learning that requires learn- ers to participate in a community of inquiry with peers and experts. This action research
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project carried out a competency-based teaching development program based on learning activities and used the six methods derived from cognitive apprenticeship: (1) modelling, (2) coaching, (3) scaffolding, (4) articulating, (5) reflecting and (6) exploring. Due to the different background and levels of experience of the participants, some required modelling, coaching or scaffolding in the given learning situation, while others were able to articu-late, reflect and explore in order to extend their expertise. They supported each other in resolving the given task, and, in this way, co-constructed learning was taking place within the community of inquiry. The participants reported an increase in teaching self-efficacy and self-reflective practices; they pointed out the importance of reflecting on their prior teaching practice and also the need to be informed about what skills they possess and those which they should develop.
Within the literature on mentoring in the context of supporting faculty development, experts point out that the benefits provided by mentoring, for both the mentor and men-tee, are bidirectional regarding professional identity development, something that has out-standing professional advantages. Traditional mentoring activities mostly emerge between inexperienced and experienced, knowledgeable professionals (Collins 1994). In such re-lationships, the participants focus more on the mentee’s areas for growth, development and gaps in knowledge, rather than on their contributions. The mentor’s responsibility is to play a guiding role in helping the mentee to develop the professional skills that are aligned with the mentee’s professional goals or aspirations (Campbell & Campbell, 2000). By contrast, in the co-mentoring process, a co-learning relationship is formulated that would transcend any existing power differentials. Learning together could become a strong motivator for both partners as they move on to a new quality of mentoring relationship (Totleben
& Deiss, 2015). The co-mentoring model was, therefore, created and used in different educational and faculty development programs (Murdock, Stipanovic & Lucas 2013;
Angelique, Kyle & Taylor, 2002) as opposed to a traditional mentoring approach as it reduces power differentials and encourages collegial relationships.
Similar to co-mentoring, but also an alternative form of mentoring, is peer mentoring, which involves two or more persons of equal status (Girves, Zepeda & Gwathmey 2005).
Peer mentoring often combines both informal and formal characteristics of the mentoring process (Thomas, Bystydzienski & Desai 2015) and has several advantages for both wom- en and men in academia. The first benefit is availability and access because an individual is likely to have more peers than supervisors/managers (Kram & Isabella 1985). Another advantage is the ease of seeking support and guidance from peers and also general infor-mation sharing, or specifically about professional themes and personal relationships that extend beyond the boundaries of work (Angelique, Kyle & Taylor 2002). Peer