Chapter 10 • Inequality and Equity in Public Education
10.2 Possible Education Policies and Their Instruments
Table 10.2
The number of boys and girls leaving education according to educational levels, 1998 (thousand people)
Source: KSH, Hungarian Statistical Yearbook, 1998
According to data from the Monitor surveys, the differences in the level of knowledge between boys and girls are not significant: the cognitive abilities of eighth-former girls exceeded that of boys, and there was only one domain of knowledge where the performance of the latter was better, namely reading comprehension. In recent years, however, differences in the favour of boys have increased, for example, in the domain of mathematical thinking or ICT knowledge and skills. All this suggests that the pedagogical practices of primary schools ensure better con-ditions for the development of boys. The interrelation of socialisation in the school and social-isation at home is demonstrated by the fact that the higher the qualification of parents, the smaller the difference between the two genders, except for computer science and natural sci-ences. The third possible dimension to educational inequality between boys and girls, which has not been explored in Hungary as yet, is the socialising effect of education: the typical gen-der roles the school transmits, and how these affect the future social position and life prospects of boys and girls.
monitoring of individual student performances). On the whole, it can be said that (1) the issue of social and regional inequality has received marked attention throughout the decade, (2) the issue of the education of minorities in general, and that of Gypsies in particular, has been given more attention since the middle of the 90s, but it is not fully integrated into the whole of edu-cation policy, (3) the eduedu-cation of special needs students is invariably one of the peripheral issues of education policy, and (4) the issue of the equality of the genders has not appeared on the agenda of policy makers.
Programmes that pronouncedly aim at reducing inequalities have been rarely launched. One of these was the Programme for the Educational Development of Gypsies, introduced in 1995, and another the PHARE-programme of 2000, which intends to ‘support the social integration of the multiply-disadvantaged, primarily Gypsy children’. The programme, with a total budget of 9.6 million euros, contains three major elements: (1) decreasing the dropout rate in primary school, (2) the support of special secondary training, and (3) the improvement of the social sit-uation of the Gypsy minority, and their social integration.
Appendix
Main indicators of the Hungarian educational system in international comparison, 1998
133
DESCRIPTION OF INDICATORS HUNGARY OECD AVERAGE Public expenditure on educational institutions in percentage of GDP 4.83 5.1 The proportion of private resources within expenditure on educational institutions
(source identified) 12 10
Primary education 2 035 3 851
Secondary education 2 093 5 274
Annual expenditure per student (USD)
Higher education 5 430 8 601
Initial wages of primary school teachers 5 978 21 459 Wages of primary school teachers
adjusted for buying power (in USD) Legally guaranteed annual wages of teachers
with 15 years of experience 11 066 29 899
Primary education 11.0 17.1
Secondary education 10.8 15.2
HUMANANDFINANCIAL INVESTMENTINEDUCATION
Student / teacher rate
Higher education 11.8 14.6
Expected length of schooling (in years) under the present circumstances
(excluding children below 5) 15.6 16.4
The rate of those with upper secondary education (ISCED 3) within the age
group of school-leavers 90 79
The net rate of those enrolling in higher ed ucation (ISCED 5/Ai) 45 40
Graduates per initially enrolling students (ISCED 5/A) 77 nd
ENROLMENT DATA
Change in the percentage of students enrolling in higher educationii
(1990 = 100) 205 149
Annual number of classes per primary school teachers in the state-financed sector 555 700
Annual number of classes of students aged 13 902 937
LEARNINGENVIRONMENT ANDTHEORGANISATION OFSCHOOLEDUCATION (ISCED2)
Mean value of student per computer rate in upper primary education (age 10-14)iii 30 17.1 Rate of those with upper secondary or higher
qualifications in the 25-64 age (ISCED 3<) 63 61 Rate of those currently graduating from upper
secondary education (ISCED 3) 90 79
Rate of those holding a university higher
qualifications in the 25-64 age (ISCED 5/A<) 13 14 Qualifications of the adult population
and the rate of currently graduating students
Rate of those working towards their first
university degree (ISCED 5/A) 25 24
Male 213 nd
The differential index of the income of those with a university degree and those with upper secondary education only
(25-64 age group) Female 154 nd
Primary education only or lower in the
15-19 age group 39.1 22.1
Primary education only or lower in the
20-24 age group 17.8 18.9
Primary education only or lower in the
25-29 age group 18 15.2
Secondary education in the 20-24 age group 10.4 13.6 EDUCATIONALEFFICIENCY(INDIVIDUALS ANDTHELABOURMARKET)
Unemployment rates according to highest qualifications (percentage of
age group)
Secondary education in the 25-29 age group 7.2 9 i Higher education A – type (ISCED 5/A) including university and college courses.
ii Data for 1997
iii Data for the scholastic year 1998/99
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136
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 The size of age groups born between 1975 and 1999 on January 1st, 1999 . . . 12 Figure 1.1 The size of age groups born between 1975 and 1999 on January 1st, 1999 . . . 12 Figure 1.2 Highest school qualifications of those leaving the educational system, 1990-1998 . 13 Table 1.2 Highest school qualifications of those leaving the educational system, 1990-1998 . 13 Table 1.3 An international survey on reading comprehension in the 16-65 age group,
1994–98, average . . . 14 Table 1.4 Population and economic activity at the beginning of the year, 1990-1998
(in thousands) . . . .16 Figure 1.3 Rate of unemployment according to age groups, 1999 last quarter (%) . . . 17 Figure 1.4 The distribution of unemployed and employed individuals according to their
highest school qualifications, 1999 last quarter (%) . . . 18 Table 1.5 Public opinion concerning the proposed ratio of the financial support of various
public fields (in the percentage of total expenditure) . . . 20 Table 1.6. Change in preferences of the population concerning public education between
1990 and 1999 (rank order 1 to 7) . . . 20 Chapter 2
Table 2.1 The system of Hungarian public education administration: levels, functions and players . . . 22 Table 2.2 The number of local governments with educational responsibilities, 1994/95
and 1999/2000 . . . 26 Table 2.3 The number of local governments with educational responsibilities, according
to population size, 1999/2000 . . . 27 Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Budget expenditure on education and public education in percentage of GDP, 1990-1999 . . . 31 Figure 3.2 Expenditure on public education in percentage of GDP in OECD countries,
1998 . . . 32 Table 3.1 Budget spending on education per student in percentage of per capita GDP
in certain OECD countries on various levels of education, 1997 . . . 33 Figure 3.3 The increase of expenditures in public education and consumer price index,
1991-1999 (previous year = 100%) . . . 33 Table 3.2 The state budget and public education expenditures of local governments,
1991–1999 (in HUF) . . . 34 Table 3.3 The percentage of education expenditure within the total expenditure of local
governments, 1994-1999 (%) . . . 37 Table 3.4 The percentage of expenditure on salaries in current educational layout broken
down according to school types, 1990–1999 . . . 38 Chapter 4
Table 4.1 The number of participants in school-based public education according to school type and age . . . 39 Table 4.2 The number of pupils and classes of six- and eight-grade general secondary
schools at grades 5-8, 1991/92-1999/2000 . . . 42 137
Table 4.3 The changing number of students in the 13th grade or above in secondary vocational schools, 1995/96–1999/2000 . . . 43 Figure 4.1 The number of students going on to secondary and technical school
after leaving primary education, 1990/91–1999/2000 . . . 45 Table 4.4 The number of primary school-leavers and students who continue their
studies after primary education, 1985/86–1999/2000 . . . 45 Table 4.5 The number of students at secondary level in each programme,
1985/86–1999/2000 . . . 46 Figure 4.2 Key trends in primary school education, 1985/86–1999/2000 . . . 48 Table 4.6 Key data in primary school education, 1985/86–1999/2000 . . . 49 Table 4.7 The number of primary schools according to management and characteristic
feature, 1990/91–1999/2000 . . . 49 Figure 4.3 Trends of secondary school student numbers according to programmes,
1985/86–1999/2000 (19985/86 = 100%) . . . 51 Figure 4.4 The number of applicants for full-time training and admitted students
in higher education, 1990-1999 . . . 54 Table 4.8 Total number of students taking secondary school-leaving and higher
education entrance examinations, 1990–1999 (thousand people) . . . 55 Table 4.9 Main indicators of higher education, 1990/91, 1996/97–1999/2000 . . . 56 Table 4.10 The rate of employed individuals in the 20-24 age group compared
to the total population in OECD countries, 1996 . . . 58 Table 4.11 Foundational schools and schools maintained by other parties than local
governments, the number of their students and teachers, 1992/93–1999/2000 . . 61 Table 4.12 Key data on church-affiliated institutions 1992/93-1999/2000 . . . 63 Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Average number of classes according to cultural domains in the central class schedules and recommendations for class schedules in Hungary, 1988, 1995 and 2000; and in the OECD countries (in the education of students
12-14 years of age), 1998 (%) . . . 70 Figure 5.2 Changes in the number of pupils attending primary music education, 1990-1998 . 73 Figure 5.3 The number of students enrolled in ethnic education per year, 1998/99 . . . 74 Table 5.1 The number and proportion of students learning foreign languages in primary
and secondary education, 1992/93, 1997/98, 1999/2000 . . . 77 Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Students taking meals and day-care in percentage of the total number
of students per county, between 1980/81 and 1990/2000 . . . 87 Table 6.2 The effects of the preparation of pedagogical programmes on the teaching
staff according to the directors in different school types, 1998 (%) . . . 89 Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Changes in teacher numbers in the various institution types
(previous year = 100%) . . . 96 Table 7.1 Qualification of teachers and changes in teacher numbers, 1989/90-1999/2000 . . 97 Table 7.2 Institution types and the qualifications of full-time employed teachers in public
education . . . 98 Table 7.3 Proportion of female teachers in education in the OECD countries, 1995 (%) . 100
138
(1989=100%) . . . 101 Table 7.4 The consumer price-index, and the gross income of full-time employed
teachers and workers employed in public education between 1990 and 1999 . 102 Figure 7.3 The GDP per capita and the salaries of teachers with a 15-year-experience in
lower-secondary levels (corresponds to upper-primary level) education in the OECD countries, 1998 . . . 103 Table 7.5 In-service teacher training programmes and the institutions behind them,
1997, 1998, 2000 . . . 107 Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Levels and models of the Comenius 2000 Scheme for Quality Assurance
Development in Public Education . . . 110 Figure 8.1 The change in the standard scores of eighth-graders in reading and the types
of settlement, 1991, 1995, 1997, and 1999 . . . 112 Table 8.2 The change in the standard scores of eighth-graders in reading and
mathematics and the types of settlement, 1991, 1995, 1997, and 1999 . . . 113 Figure 8.2 The differences in the performance of different grades in mathematics and
the international average, 1995 (standard scores) . . . 114 Table 8.3 The average rate of the number of students admitted into higher education
and the number of school-leavers (the F/L rate) and settlement types,
1991-1998 and 1994-1998 . . . 115 Table 8.4 The average rate of the number of students admitted into higher education
and the number of school-leavers (the F/L rate) and the types of secondary schools, 1991-1998 . . . 115 Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Data on ethnic minority education, 1990/91, 1995/96-1999/2000 . . . 121 Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Status of young people from 15-24 in education and in the labour market, 1992 and 1997 (%) . . . 126 Table 10.2 The number of boys and girls leaving education according to educational
levels, 1998 (thousand people) . . . 130
139
List of Abbreviations
141
English
Body of Pedagogical In-service Training and Accreditation
Budapest Capital Career Counselling Institution
Budapest Capital Pedagogical Institute Centre of Foreign Language Education Council for Higher Education and Science
Council for the Reconciliation of Interests in Public Education Council for the Reconciliation of Interests of Public Institutions Council of Public Education County Pedagogical Institute
Democratic Trade Union for Teachers
Eötvös Loránd University Hungarian Academy of Science Hungarian Accreditation Committee Hungarian Central Statistical Office Hungarian Institute for Educational Research
Kiss Árpád National Service Office of Public Education
Methodology and Information Centre for In-service Teacher Training Ministry of Education
Ministry of Social and Family Affairs National Committee for Minorities National Committee of Secondary School-Leaving Examination
National Competitions for Secondary Education
National Competitions for Secondary Vocational Education
National Core Curriculum, NCC National Council for Students' Right
Abbreviation PAT FIPT
FPI ITK FTT KÖÉT KIÉT
KT MPI PDSZ
ELTE MTA MAB KSH OI KÁ OKSZI PTMIK
OM SzCsM OKB OÉV OKTV OSZTV
NAT ODT
Hungarian
Pedagógus-továbbképzési Akkreditációs Testület
Fôvárosi Ifjúsági és Pályaválasztási Tanácsadó
Fôvárosi Pedagógiai Intézet Idegennyelvi Továbbképzô Központ Felsôoktatási és Tudományos Tanács Közoktatási Érdekegyeztetô Tanács
Költségvetési Intézmények Érdek-egyeztetô Tanácsa
Közoktatáspolitikai Tanács Megyei Pedagógiai Intézet Pedagógusok Demokratikus Szakszervezete
Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Magyar Akkreditációs Bizottság Központi Statisztikai Hivatal Oktatáskutató Intézet
Kiss Árpád Országos Közoktatási Szolgáltató Iroda
Pedagógus-továbbképzési
Módszertani és Információs Központ Oktatási Minisztérium
Szociális és Családügyi Minisztérium Országos Kisebbségi Bizottság Országos Érettségi Vizsgabizottság
Országos Középiskolai Tanulmányi Versenyek
Országos Szakmai Tanulmányi Versenyek
Nemzeti alaptanterv Országos Diákjogi Tanács
142
National Council for Training
National Council for Vocational Training National Expert List
National Institute of Public Education National Institute of Vocational Education
National Pedagogical In-service Training and Accreditation Committee
National Public Education Council National Public Education Evaluation and Examination Centre
National Textbook Association National Training Register Office of the Commissioner for Educational Rights
Public Foundation for the
Modernisation of School Education Trade Union for Teachers
OKT OSZT OSZN OKI NSZI PAB
OKNT OKÉV
TOSZ OKJ OJBH KOMA PSZ
Országos Képzési Tanács Országos Szakképzési Tanács Országos Szakértôi Névjegyzék Országos Közoktatási Intézet Nemzeti Szakképzési Intézet
Pedagógus-továbbképzési Akkreditációs Bizottság Országos Köznevelési Tanács Országos Közoktatási Értékelési és Vizsgaközpont
Tankönyvesek Országos Szövetsége Országos Képzési Jegyzék
Oktatási Jogok Biztosa Hivatala
Közoktatási Modernizációs Alapítvány
Pedagógusok Szakszervezete
List of Terms
143 English
4, 6, 8 GRADE/ YEARS GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOL ACCREDITED HIGHER LEVEL VOCATIONAL TRAINING APPRENTICE EXAM
BASIC EXAMINATION BILINGUAL SCHOOL CLASS-MASTER COLLEGE
COMPULSORY EDUCATION/ SCHOOLING
DAY-CARE SERVICE TEACHER
EDUCATIONAL COUNSELLING SERVICE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMME
GENERAL EDUCATION
GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOL HEADMASTER/ SCHOOL DIRECTOR HIGHER EDUCATION
IN-SERVICE TRAINING OF TEACHERS LOWER PRIMARY EDUCATION MEMBER SCHOOL
MIXED SECONDARY SCHOOL
NAT/NCC CULTURAL DOMAIN
NATIONALEXPERTLIST
NATIONAL REGULATIONS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
-LEAVING EXAMINATION
NATIONALTRAININGREGISTER NORMATIVE SUPPORT
NURSERY SCHOOL
POST-PROFESSIONAL EXAMINATION POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION/ TRAINING
PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION PRIMARY SCHOOL PRIMARY EDUCATION
Hungarian
4, 6, 8 OSZTÁLYOS GIMNÁZIUM AKKREDITÁLT FELSÔFOKÚ SZAKKÉPZÉS SZAKMUNKÁSVIZSGA
ALAPMÛVELTSÉGI VIZSGA KÉTTANNYELVU ISKOLA OSZTÁLYFÔNÖK FÔISKOLA
ISKOLAKÖTELEZETTSÉG NAPKÖZIS TANÁR NEVELÉSI TANÁCSADÓ KÉPZÉSI PROGRAM ÁLTALÁNOS KÉPZÉS
GIMNÁZIUM
ISKOLAIGAZGATÓ FELSÔOKTATÁS TANÁR-TOVÁBBKÉPZÉS ALSÓ TAGOZATOS OKTATÁS TAGISKOLA
VEGYES KÖZÉPISKOLA(GIMNÁZIUM
ÉS SZAKKÖZÉPISKOLA) NAT MÛVELTSÉGI TERÜLET
ORSZÁGOSSZAKÉRTÔINÉVJEGYZÉK
ÉRETTSÉGI VIZSGAKÖVETELMÉNYEK
ORSZÁGOSKÉPZÉSIJEGYZÉK TANULÓI NORMATÍVA ÓVODA
(PEDAGÓGUS) SZAKVIZSGA
POSZTSZEKUNDER OKTATÁS/ KÉPZÉS
ÓVODÁZTATÁS ÁLTALÁNOS ISKOLA
ÁLTALÁNOS ISKOLAI OKTATÁS