3.1 General objectives of the study
Little is known about the influence of mass media on EDs among Hungarian adults.
Therefore, the current study‘s aim was to investigate the possible associations between media exposure and EDs related symptomatology such as body image, disordered eating habits, unhealthy weight control techniques and other risk factors for developing EDs in an adult population in Hungary. One of the study‘s aims was to explore detailed associations between various psychological features and the frequency of engaging in reading magazines, watching television programmes, and browsing the Internet and possible gender differences. The focus was on appearance, eating and exercise related media content. There has been no validated research so far regarding mass media influence on body image, and EDs related symptomatology in Hungary in the adult male and female population, only one regarding magazine reading on a sample of young adolescents and high-school students (Szabó, Túry, & Czeglédi, 2011).
The current work consisted of five different parts, each with its specific aims. The first part aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of three different questionnaires that measure important constructs regarding the societal influence in body image and EDs. It was also planned to explore the psychological correlates in terms of being exposed to various media content. The study aimed to investigate the associations between weight loss content seeking behaviour in magazines and on the Internet and the use of unhealthy weight-reduction methods as well. Furthermore, a structural equation modelling analysis was implemented to explore the possible multiple predictors of body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness in association with the media.
Lastly, the goal was also to determine possible predictors of risk for developing EDs based on reading diet, fitness/health magazines and browsing ProED pages. In the following chapters, each goal and related hypotheses will be presented in detail.
3.2 Questionnaire validation and adaptation
In the frame of the current study, we intended to adapt and validate the following questionnaires into Hungarian: the Beliefs About Attractiveness Scale-Revised (BAA-R;
Petrie, Rogers, Johnson, & Diehl, 1996); the Physical Appearance Comparison Scale
(PACS; Thompson, Heinberg, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1991); and the Social Comparison Scale (SCS; Allan & Gilbert, 1995). The validation and adaptation of these measures are important as the growing number of literature implies the important role of sociocultural influences in the development and maintenance of EDs (Levine & Murnen, 2015).
These questionnaires measure important constructs that play a possible role in body image, body dissatisfaction, and EDs.
3.3 Psychological correlates regarding various media exposure
Research has shown that exposure to various media products, such as fashion and fitness magazines, soap operas, movies, music television, diet and ProED websites are in association with body dissatisfaction, thin-ideal internalization, drive for thinness, low self-esteem and social comparison (Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Slater & Tiggemann, 2014; Tiggemann & Slater, 2014; Tiggemann, 2003; Bell, Lawton, & Dittmar, 2007;
Rouleau & von Ranson, 2011; Utter et al., 2003). Therefore, we intended to explore associations between being exposed to various types of magazines, television programmes, and Internet content and psychological correlates.
Hypothesis 1. Studies documented that magazine reading was associated with negative body image, body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, body comparison and the internalization of the thin ideal especially among women (Botta, 2003; Wilcox & Laird, 2000; van den Berg et al; 2007; Cusumano & Thompson, 1997; Tiggemann & Miller, 2010). These findings were planned to be replicated in this sample and it was hypothesised that elevated levels of fashion, beauty and diet magazine reading will be associated with a more negative body image, greater body dissatisfaction, a higher drive for thinness, more frequent appearance based comparisons, and greater internalization of the slim body ideal. We also expect that women will be more affected.
Hypothesis 2. The literature describes that various appearance focused television shows, especially music videos, and cosmetic makeover shows are in correlation with body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, body comparison, the internalization of the thin ideal especially among women and risk for EDs (Hargreaves & Tiggemann 2004;
Sperry et al., 2009). It was expected to find similar associations in the current sample.
Hypothesis 3. It has been argued that Internet exposure, especially content which is appearance, exercise or EDs focused is in association with body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, body comparison, the internalization of the thin ideal and the risk for developing EDs (Fardouly et al., 2015; Sharpe et al;, 2011; Tiggemann & Slater, 2013).
It was hypothesised to find similar correlations in this adult sample.
3.4 Seeking weight loss information and the use of weight-reduction methods Due to the popularization of the Internet and the widespread distribution of uncontrolled weight loss and dieting advice; research shows a growing interest in exploring the effect of such content on eating behaviours and EDs.
Hypothesis 1. It has been argued that weight loss seeking behaviour in magazines and online is associated with the elevated risk of using unhealthy and extremely unhealthy weight reduction techniques (Laz et al., 2011; Utter et al.; 2003). It was expected in this study that similar results would surface, namely that more frequent magazine and Internet-based weight loss seeking behaviour would also elevate the risk of using unhealthy weight-control methods.
3.5 Predictors of body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness
Investigating the possible contributors to body dissatisfaction created a need for more comprehensive studies. It has been shown that various factors play roles in the development of body dissatisfaction and EDs.
Hypothesis 1. Research showed that media‘s influence on the body is very complex and leads via various mediating factors, such as physical appearance comparison, thin-ideal internalization, drive for thinness and perceived pressures from the media to attain the slim body ideal (Fitzsimmons-Craft et al., 2014). It was hypothesised that between the media exposure and body dissatisfaction various factors would mediate the relationship.
3.6 Predictors of risk for developing eating disorders
One of the main purposes of the study was to determine possible predictors for developing specified and unspecified EDs. Unspecified EDs (previously as EDs
otherwise not specified) are estimated to affect a larger number of the population than the classical EDs (Fairburn, Cooper, Bohn, O‘Connor, Doll, & Palmer, 2007; Machado, Machado, Gonçalves, & Hoek, 2006). The popularization of the media and widespread nature of modified images featuring extremely thin and artificial looking models and the easy accessibility of harmful media messages creates a growing need to understand the possible predictors in the development of specified and unspecified EDs.
Hypothesis 1. Frequent diet, fitness, and health related media (magazines, TV, Internet) use and frequent exposure to ED promoting websites would be in association with the elevated risk of developing specified and unspecified EDs.