Languages of the subcontinent

Among the language families present in the Indian subcontinent, the Indo-European languages, which have been present since at least the second millen-nium CE, are the predominant languages through the Indo-Aryan languages, which are part of the Indo-Iranian languages. This includes Sanskrit (‘complex’,

‘ornamented’), the archaic form of which was spoken by the Aryans coming from the north-west on the subcontinent. Aryan (meaning “noble”) is the self-designation of the speakers of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family; it does not refer to ethnic belonging. India’s oldest sacred texts, the Vedas, and the vast religious, philosophical, scientific literature of ancient India were written in Sanskrit. Sanskrit grammar and phonetics were described in the world's first regular grammatical work (Astadhayayi) by Panini, who lived in the fifth century CE.

With the spread of the Aryans, the Sanskrit language became widespread throughout northern India, and as they continued to spread, simplified local variants, the Prakrit languages developed. The best known of these is Pali, the

sacred language of Southern (Theravada) Buddhism and the Pāli Canon. The Indo-European languages spoken today in the subcontinent originate from the Prakrit languages: Hindi in North and Central India, Gujarati and Rajasthani in the west, Punjabi and Sindhi in the north-west; the Dardic languages including Kashmiri in the northernmost corner, Pahari languages in the Himalayas, Bihari Bengali, Oriya and Asami in the East, Marathi in the South and Singhalese in Sri Lanka. The Iranian languages are represented by Balochi and Pashto in the west and north-west, and Kafiri or Nuristani in the far north-west of the subcontinent.

The official language of the Mughal Empire was Persian. Among the Indo-European languages used on the subcontinent, the widespread use of English as an official language and modern lingua franca is worth mentioning.

The languages belonging to the Dravidian language family, which have inscriptional evidence from the beginning of our time, are concentrated in the southern part of the subcontinent, but their remains can also be found in Central India (Gondi) and Balochistan (Brahui). The South Indian Dravidian languages include Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam and Telugu, in all of which rich literature has been produced. We know very little about the early history of Dravidian speakers. It is believed that the population of the Indus Valley Civilisation was made up of Proto-Dravidian speakers who migrated there around 4,500BCE from the Iranian plateau and were gradually pushed south by the settling Aryans.

However, since the Indus Valley writing remains undeciphered as yet, this question cannot be answered with certainty based on our current knowledge.

What is certain is that the Dravidians, like the Aryans, have no clear ethnic characteristics, which virtually excludes their archaeological identification. At the same time, Dravidian names and loanwords in Sanskrit confirm the presence of the Dravidians from the earliest stages of Vedic literature, suggesting that they had arrived in the subcontinent earlier than the Aryans.

The Austro-Asiatic languages (Munda in Central and Eastern India, Khasi in Assam) have written evidence only from the last few centuries. Judging from loanwords, however, their speakers are likely to have arrived in the subcontinent before the Dravidian and Aryan language groups. Ethnic groups representing the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family crossed the Himalayas into the northern and north-eastern peripheries of the subcontinent.

Their presence is indicated by inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley since the fourth century CE.Tibetan and Newari of the Tibetan-Burmese branch are spoken today in the Himalayas.

3.1.4. Chronology of the History of Indian Civilisation Concept of time, chronology, sources

Establishing the historical dates of Indian civilisation has been difficult since the beginning of the research. In Indian tradition, there was no systematic historiography such as in Europe, China, or Islamic culture. Little or no importance was given to the timeliness of the events and the historical role of the individual. Although there is a historical tradition, mainly in the form of royal lists and ancestry lines (genealogies), which, however, are embedded in the myths and legends of the Puranas (“old stories”, encyclopaedic works of the Indian cosmological, mythological and historical tradition), often contradictory and rarely relate to specific persons, dates, events, or locations. The reason for this lies in an approach that relativises the earthly world of phenomena. There is a cosmic logic in the narratives of Indian civilisation about the past, which places terrestrial time and man on earth in the perspective of the operation of the universe, so it is understandable that its significance becomes relative or dwarfed from this point of view. In the world conception of the Indian civilisation, time is not linear, but cyclic, where the cycles of existence and destruction (withdrawal or dissolution) of the universe are eternally interchanged. Cosmological time is measured in the days and years of the gods. A cycle of existence (Sk. kalpa, ‘eon’) corresponds to one day of the god Brahma, which is equal to 4.32 billion earth years, followed by Brahma’s night of the same length (cycle of dissolution). A kalpa is made up of 1000 great periods (mahayuga), each of which consists of four epochs (yuga). They (Satya, Treta, Dvapara and Kali Yugas) are not of equal length, but gradually decreasing duration, and are characterised by the gradual deterioration of order, law, and morality. The longest is Satya Yuga or the Golden Age when people were closest to the divine laws, and the shortest and morally most corrupt is Kali Yuga when the world is ripe for renewal. The latter occurs as a result of divine intervention and is followed, after an interval of dissolution, by a new cycle of the four yugas. In one single day of Brahma, the four yugas revolve a thousand times. The events that take place in them ‒ including the incarnations of the gods, the appearance of Buddhas and Jinas, the great wars and the turning points in history ‒ are identical, so the events that the man on earth experiences in his or her life had already taken place infinite times in the past and will occur again in future world epochs. One year of Brahma consists of 360 such days, and his life, however long it may seem, is finite with 311 trillion and 40 billion years of earth time, a mere flash for the universe as a whole. Brahma, however, is not alone, in the worlds of the universe, a multitude of Brahmas are born and disappear subject to the causal relationships of the material world.

The traditional Indian view of history is primarily shaped by the Puranas and the great epics. The formation of the Puranas in the first version is estimated to have taken place from the fourth to the tenth centuries CE, but much of the stories goes back to ancient times. The epics and other literary works also contain historical references, but the dates of most of them are difficult to establish and their period of creation often spans hundreds of years. Historical research, the most important sources of which are dated inscriptions and coins, seeks to compare data extracted from Puranic and epic literature with dated persons and events, which, however, is only successful in some cases. Archaeological research has been ongoing since the establishment of the Archaeological Survey of India (1861), but the vast expanse of Indian civilisation and the continued habitation and cult use of holy sites hinders the full exploration of even the most important sites. It is estimated that most of the material and artistic heritage of Indian civilisation is still buried underground today, so any major discovery may profoundly change our view of civilisation in the future.

Periodisation

There are no universally followed periods in the history of the Indian civilisation. Its main phases used to be described earlier as Hindu, Muslim and British periods. However, this was misleading because it may have seemed as though the periods of Hindu, Islamic and British civilisations were consecutive eras in the history of the subcontinent, yet the Indian civilisation did not cease to exist with the advent of either the Islamic or the European civilisation. The division of antiquity, medieval times, and modern times is also widespread and is still partly used today, despite the fact that the Indian socio-economic features associated with the great historical periods differ significantly from those of the West. Another common method is periodisation by royal dynasties, the main disadvantage of which is that no period in the history of Indian civilisation can be linked to any single dynasty since the whole of the subcontinent was first united by British India (official English name: the Indian Empire). Therefore, recent and present historiography usually apply periodisation with a mixed set of criteria, taking into account the tendencies of social and economic processes that span dynasties. However, in the absence of a generally accepted system, periodisation can vary from one school of history to another, or even from one historian to another. The major periods in the history of Indian civilisation, using a mixed set of criteria, are:

Prehistory until c. 1500 BCE

• Indus Valley Civilisation c. 2600‒1900 Antiquity

• Vedic period c. 1500‒600 BCE

• Second urbanisation c. 600‒200 BCE

• Early classical period c. 200 BCE ‒ 320 CE

• Classical period c. 320‒650 Middle Ages

• Early Middle Ages (Hindu dynasties in the north) c. 650‒1200

• Late Middle Ages (Delhi Sultanate) c. 1200‒1526 Modern history

• Early Modern Age (Age of the Mughal Empire) 1526‒1858

• Modern Age (British Empire in India and Independence) from 1858 to the present

The main features of the historical periods

Human settlement has left archaeological traces on the Indian subcontinent since prehistoric times. The first significant civilisation was the Indus Valley Civilisation, one of the great river cultures of the ancient East, besides Mesopotamia and Egypt. Its immediate antecedents were the Neolithic settlements on the eastern side of the Bolan Pass, dating back to around 7000 BCE. The prehistory of the Indus Valley Civilisation began around 3300 BCE, and its mature urban phase dates back to 2600‒1900 BCE. In its vast territory, comprising areas of today’s Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, Baluchistan), north-western India (Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan) and north-eastern Afghanistan, more than two thousand cities have been detected. Its total population is estimated at two to five million. The decline of the civilisation is probably due to climatic reasons, with its cities abandoned by 1700 BCE.

The decline of Indus Valley Civilisation coincided with the emergence of Indo-Aryan speaking ethnic groups on the subcontinent, followed by the rise of Vedic culture (c. 1500‒600 BCE) parallel with the expansion of the Aryansin northern India.

At the time of the Second Urbanisation that took place in the Ganges Valley (c. 600‒200 BCE), the Buddhist and Jaina religions emerged, Hellenistic and West Asian impacts could be felt as a result of Greek and Persian conquests and contacts, the first great empire of the subcontinent, the Maurya Empire was created (Map 10) and the Tamil culture fist flourished in South India.

Map 10: The Maurya Empire c. 250 BCE Source: Edited by ÁGNES VARGA

The early classical period (c. 200 BCE ‒ 320 BCE) added Central Asian impacts to Hellenistic influences and the second period of prosperity for Buddhism under the auspices of the Kushan Empire. The classical period (c. 320‒

650) witnessed the first imperial flourishing of Hindu religion and culture within the Gupta state (Map 11).The period hallmarked with the Gupta-Vakataka dynasties is also known as the Golden Age of North India, which brought the unparalleled flourishing of science, fine arts and literature within a sophisticated urban culture. In South India, the Pallava dynasty gained power by establishing maritime relations with Southeast Asia.

Map 11: The Gupta Empire and its neighbours c. 400 CE Source: Edited by ÁGNES VARGA

The early Middle Ages (c. 650‒1200) were characterised by political fragmentation and the rise of Hindu dynasties, with increasing invasions of Islamic conquerors in the north. The late Middle Ages (c. 1200‒1526) bring the foundation and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate and its successor states as well as an increase in the proportion of Muslim population. Hindu religiosity was characterised by the spread of the bhakti movement which focused on a personal devotion to god. The rise of the Sikh religion in Punjab was partly related to the bhakti movement. In the South, the Chola Empire emerged as a dominant power,

whereas during the spread of Islam in North India, Vijayanagar became the representative of Hindu statehood. In the north, the Rajput principalities fought against the expanding Islamic power.

Map 12: The greatest expansion of the Mughal Empire (late seventeenth, early eighteenth century)

Source: Edited by ÁGNES VARGA

In the early modern age (1526‒1858), new Islamic conquerors, the Mughals, created an Islamic empire that was more powerful than its predecessors stretching over almost the entire subcontinent (Map 12), against which, however, resistance emerged in the form of the Sikh and Maratha states.

Map 13: British India in 1906 Source: Edited by ÁGNES VARGA

This was also the age of colonisation: this is when European traders set foot in the coastal areas. The British emerged victorious from the rivalry of West-ern powers here, leading straight to the formation of the British colonial empire in India. The suppression of the Indian Rebellion in 1858 was a milestone as the British Crown took over the colonial government from the East India Company (Map 13). The unfolding independence movement led to the proclamation of the independence and the partition of India and Pakistan after World War II in 1947.

3.1.5. The main chapters in the history of Indian civilisation Material culture of the Indus Valley Civilisation

Known for its large and well-planned cities, the Indus Valley Civilisation represents the first period of urbanisation in the history of the subcontinent.

Although the connection between the achievements of this civilisation or its creators and the later civilisation of the subcontinent is not known, the large number of comparable phenomena allows the assumption of some continuity that has not yet been clarified. Answering the open questions is hindered by the fact that our knowledge is based almost exclusively on the interpretation of archaeological evidence. The Indus script is still undeciphered, and there are contradicting views even about its nature. According to one hypothesis, it is pictographic and syllabic and was used to record an early Dravidian language, while according to another assumption its symbols do not constitute a writing system. Although the number of known symbols is over four hundred, they are inscribed on seals, small tablets, and ceramic pots, and the average length of the inscriptions is only 4‒5 characters. Thus, the question of whether the Indus Valley Civilisation had a writing system to record a language cannot be answered beyond any doubt. Many researchers believe that a civilisation of such size and organisation could not have existed without writing, and they presume that some perishable material was used for writing, as a result of which all written records have been destroyed.

Across the whole expanse of the civilisation, we can observe a high degree of planning and regulation, indicating the existence of strong central power.

However, we have no information about the nature of that power. The most important cities (Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Lothal, Kalibangan) were divided into a citadel and a lower city, both surrounded by walls. It is assumed that the citadel may have served as the residence of the elite, but no trace of a ruler’s palace or large tomb was found. The most famous structure in the citadel of Mohenjo Daro, known as the Great Bath, a brick-covered tank made water-resistant with bitumen, triggers an association with South India’s temple tanks for many. We

can probably assume that the builders of the Great Bath were driven by some ritual goal. Tiny cells surrounded the tank that might have been used by priests.

However, no building was found in any of the cities that could be clearly identified as a temple.

In the lower town, the streets running north-south and east-west formed a regular mesh and intersected at right angles. This kind of urban planning, and even the hierarchy of streets, can be recognised much later in the descriptions of the Vastu Shastras (architectural manuals) and the urban planning based on them.

In the lower city stood most of the residential buildings, often two-story buildings and almost closed to the street, with living quarters built around an inner courtyard, much like the typical medieval and early modern dwellings of wealthy North Indian urban merchants (haveli). The water supply and the drainage system unmatched in the era are striking. There were public wells in the cities, but the larger houses had their own wells inside the gate (a medieval example for this is the old city of Ahmedabad, Gujarat). Many houses had bathrooms, and sewage was drained into covered underground sewers on the main streets. The flat roofs of the houses were used for various purposes, like today. The lower town was inhabited primarily by traders and craftsmen who lived in well-defined neighbourhoods. The crowded residential quarters of craftsmen, shopkeepers, workers, and peasants were located in the outer parts of the cities. Occupational (caste) organisation is a typical feature of South Asian urban morphology in historical periods, as are city walls and the city gates at the end of the main roads.

In Harappa, workshops of various craftsmen were discovered: potter’s kilns, textile dyers’ vats, metalworkers’ smelters, shell carvers’ workshops and bead drills. Jewellery recovered from burials ‒ belts, necklaces, etc. made from multiple rows of beads – closely resemble jewels depicted in female figures of early Buddhist art (e.g., on the balustrade of the Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh). Among the figurative representations, the humped bull (zebu) was very common, which is also of great importance in the later cultures (zebu was domesticated on the Indian subcontinent). A small number of bronze figures unearthed in Indus cities testifies to the knowledge of the lost wax method of bronze casting.

The Indus Valley Civilisation was highly advanced in measuring height, weight, and time. A uniform system of weights and measures was in the entire area of civilisation throughout its 700 years of existence. The massive walls surrounding the cities, the huge brick platforms, large grain storages, warehouses and dockyards on the riverbank reflect the advanced level of architecture and construction technology. The design of port buildings testifies to an accurate knowledge of tides and currents.

Despite the high degree of urbanisation, most of the population lived in villages. The dominance of the countryside and the role of the villages as the main promoters of Indian civilisation continued in the historic period. Based on the excavated human skeletons, the anthropologically mixed population was dominated by the Proto-Australoid and the Mediterranean types. The primary source of living was agriculture, with wheat, barley and legumes as the main food.

Domestic animals included cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs and possibly poultry. The harvested crops were transported on ox or buffalo-drawn

Domestic animals included cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs and possibly poultry. The harvested crops were transported on ox or buffalo-drawn