Interim summary

As with the evolution of motivation research, approaches to studying language learning behaviour (i.e., what makes someone a good language learner) have progressed considerably. Initially, it was only the concrete tools language learners used that were the focus of interest. Later, however, the principles behind those tools came into the spotlight, along with the routines or stages language learners manifest when approaching language learning (or other activities). Studying these techniques has inevitably become more and more complex, however, it is not clear how language teachers can benefit from this research in terms of teaching these techniques to students, or making students more aware of these strategies as a consequence of our deeper understanding. The shift in research focus includes the following research avenues:

83 1. Good language learners,

2. Language learning strategies, 3. Self-regulation.

When GLLs were the focus of research, lists of behaviours and concrete manifestations of behaviour were observed and presented (Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975).

These lists were no more than a simple catalogue of what was thought to be a representative description of excellence in language learning, and no real systemacity was involved.

As our understanding developed, seemingly exhaustive lists of categories and subcategories emerged, along with definitions of language learning strategies, which were believed to lead to more effective ways of language learning. The problems, however, soon became clear. On the one hand, these definitions were problematic in the sense that the exact nature of language learning strategies remained unclear and vague, and thus it questioned the legitimacy of their very existence; on the other hand, categories overlapped and sometimes missed important considerations. Therefore, language learning strategy research gradually began to be replaced by self-regulation research (Dörnyei, 2005).

Self-regulation research is a step forward because it can concentrate on two aspects of behaviour simultaneously. Firstly, it can reveal the active and dynamic side of behaviour, and analyse how people in general and students in particular organise and manage behaviour from intention-formation until execution and reflexion; and secondly, it can advise them on techniques and strategies as to how to approach language learning and enhance efficiency.

84 2.3 Motivation and self-regulation

Motivation and self-regulation research focus both on human behaviour and the reasons behind it, and how people perform action. While the focus of interest is somewhat different, both lines of research can inform each other about current trends in order to contribute to a deeper understanding of the intricate processes of human behaviour in general, and learning in particular. In this section, I will give an overview of how the most important theories of motivation, i.e., those addressed above, feed self-regulation research, and the effect of the findings of self-self-regulation research on motivational enquiries. Table 2.11 shows the most important aspects of the theories of motivation discussed in this chapter, and also their relevance in self-regulation.

Gardner and his colleagues‟ (Gardner, 1985, 2001, 2006; Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993) interpretation of motivation focussed on the effects of effort, desire, goals and attitudes on motivation. These aspects are all prerequisites for a healthy (i.e., not maladaptive) self-regulatory process. At the same time, goals and effort help students overcome difficult stages of learning, and favourable attitudes contribute to working out adaptive strategies to cope with difficulty.

Goal theories (Ames, 1992; Locke & Latham, 1990) emphasise the importance of setting and pursuing goals, which is a cornerstone of self-regulation. Goals are the milestones, without which the process of learning is impossible. When considering goals in regulating any kind of behaviour, it is of utmost importance that the teacher whose responsibility it usually is sets appropriate goals. Students must target mastery orientation, since at the heart of the self-regulatory paradigm lies the concept of

85 acquiring knowledge rather than simply performing exercises. Moreover, learning goals foster intrinsic motivation and lead to more effective strategies (Dweck, 1999).

Table 2.11 The contribution of theories of motivation in psychology to self-regulation

Theory The most important aspects of

the theory of motivation Relevance in self-regulation

Socio-educational model

Effort, desire, goal

Favourable attitudes towards learning the language

(Gardner, 1985, 2001, 2006; Gardner &

Lambert, 1959, 1972; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993)

Prerequisites for regulation Sustaining motivation and thus fuelling self-regulation

Goal theories

Goals (specificity, difficulty, commitment) Mastery and performance orientation (Ames, 1992; Locke & Latham, 1990)

Setting and pursuing goals Mastery orientation

Self-determination theory

“natural process of self-motivation” (Ryan &

Deci, 2000, p. 68)

Regulatory styles (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan &

Deci, 2000)

Regulation is self-determined, non-regulation is out of the question

Attribution theory

Causes

Attributions (aptitude, skill, effort, difficulty, luck, mood, family background, help-seeking, etc.) (Weiner, 1992, 2007)

Finding adaptive causes and attributions (although maladaptive regulation also exists)

Monitoring (and comparing) Action

control theory

Intention, volition, performance Crossing the Rubicon

(Heckhausen, 1991; Kuhl, 1987)

Crossing the Rubicon: from non-regulation to non-regulation (potential area for teacher intervention)

Deci and Ryan‟s Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) encapsulates the very nature of self-regulation. They outlined the continuum of regulatory styles, which allows one to take increasing amounts of responsibility for one‟s own actions. This idea is present in the concept of learning episodes (Boeakaerts

& Niemivirta, 2000), where students adapt (regulate) their learning, in light of their goals in a given setting. Identification, interpretation and appraisal are also involved, and the aim is to create a learning environment where the students, with appropriate help from the teacher, can develop effective forms of self-regulation.

86 Attribution theory (Weiner, 1992, 2007) can inform us about the links between past success and failures, and current achievement. For self-regulation to be effective, adaptive strategies and attributions are necessary to handle potentially harmful past experiences. Although one is aware of maladaptive forms of regulation, bearing in mind the aim of the teaching-learning process, those negative forms should be ignored.

Forming effective attributions in the students is the joint responsibility of the teacher and the parents. Finding the relevant causes for potential failure will not necessarily lead to learned helplessness, which makes self-regulation ineffective, if not impossible.

In addition, considering causes realistically, and comparing outcomes with origins of behaviour, are a prerequisite for monitoring behaviour in an adaptive manner.

Finally, Action control theory (Heckhausen, 1991; Kuhl, 1987) contributes to self-regulation research, by distinguishing the different phases between intention and action. In self-regulation these phases signify points for potential intervention by the teacher. Identifying problem areas, such as whether the student has a problem with setting a goal or pursuing it, allows for potentially successful teacher intervention, especially if the student is equipped with help-seeking devices. Furthermore, the idea of crossing the Rubicon manifests itself in the form of assisting and supporting the student in breaking through the barrier between non-regulation and regulation, from which point effective regulation can start to take place.

These points are identified as the most important situations where motivation research can inform self-regulation research and subsequently vice versa. The notions of consciousness and intention, which in the definitions of self-regulation take the form of control, planning and monitoring, indicate that these aspects of learning and behaviour should be addressed in more depth by motivation research. Action control theory and Self-determination theory take these notions partly into account, but this is definitely an

87 area where the self-regulatory paradigm offers a broader view. Furthermore, the very nature of regulation is an aspect that makes the concept of self-regulation more promising when investigating human behaviour. The antecedents of motivation studied by this line of investigation are also present in self-regulatory enquiries, for example goals and the environment that guide and constrain on behaviour (Pintrich, 2000).

Motivation and self-regulation research in conjunction can pinpoint those areas in a student‟s development (such as attributions, goal-setting, and strategy training, cf.

the hero quest in Section 2.2.6.2) that require teacher intervention, either in the form of gentle assistance or direct help. In spite of the fact that being motivated and being a self-regulatory learner implies that learning can take place alone, as a solitary act (Peters &

Gray, 2005), it is rather an undertaking embedded in a social context, especially in countries where learning a language happens primarily in the form of classroom learning, such as in Hungary. Therefore, combining the two paradigms is a valid point of view in studying teachers‟ motivational strategies and students‟ self-regulation in the English language classroom.