Many of the analytical procedures and methods discussed in the pre
ceding sections were developed for the determination of fluorine in specific types of samples. The specific handling of a number of such sample cate
gories has already been discussed, as for example, in the determination of fluorine in fluorocarbons or in different gaseous materials. In addition, frequent reference has been made in the discussion of general analytical methods for fluorine to their suitability for certain classes of materials.
Frequently, specialized pretreatment and handling is necessary before
fluorine can be determined in many types of samples by one of the general methods.
No attempt will be made in the subsequent discussion to indicate the particular variations in sampling, handling, preliminary treatment, and analytical measurement necessary for analyzing any specific type of sample. Instead, references will be given to procedures which have been developed for or applied to various types of samples. Accordingly, anyone desiring information on the general approach to the determination of fluorine in a particular type of sample can consult the references cited, either for that type of sample or for one similar to it.
A. BIOLOGICAL SAMPLES
The use of fluorine in plant sprays and insecticides in general, the role of fluorine in dental caries, fluorine intoxication, the various aspects of the industrial hygiene of fluorine, and the many other ways in which fluorine is related to animal and plant welfare have resulted in numerous studies on the determination of fluorine in biological samples. In many or most of these, the concern is with inorganic fluoride ion which is usually separated from the rest of the sample by a Willard and Winter distilla
tion. Often, the sample is first ashed to destroy organic material; calcium or magnesium oxide, peroxide, or other compounds may be added previous to ashing to fix the fluorine (e.g., see Sections III-A and III-B). Proce
dures generally applicable to biological samples are given in references Al, A33, C93, F l , F2, F40, G52, G66, H70, K25, M34, M35, M58, S32, and S37.
As might be expected, the determination of fluorine in toxicological and forensic analysis has received considerable attention. Fluorides and silicofluorides are important industrial dust hazards (F8). Jacobs (J2) has a good discussion on the determination of hydrofluoric acid and of fluorides in toxicological work.
In the volume on the pharmacology and toxicology of uranium com
pounds resulting from the Manhattan Project (VI1), there is a helpful discussion by Flagg (F40) of methods for the determination of minute amounts of fluoride ion in a variety of substances such as air, tissues, and biological fluids.
Other references on the detection and determination of fluorine in toxicological work include B16, B87, B100, B i l l , G33, G52, G54, G66, LI, L29, L53, M40, P19, and S87.
/. Plants
Typical studies on the determination of fluorine in plants, vegetables, foliage, and similar samples are given in references C35, C36, C65, D20,
D21, E5, F26, G25, G59, H55, 16, 17, J2, K67, M13, M14, M17, M34, M35, M56, M58, M89, 015, RIO, R15, R36, S62, S63, S98, S119, W31, W42, W66, W67, W68, W69, W70, and Z5. Many of the foregoing pro
cedures are also applicable to the analysis of soils (see also L34, M7, M8, M14, M15, M16, M18, M22, 015, R15). Kruger (K67) has discussed the detection of fluoride in plants injured by fluorine. The detection and determination of fluorine on plants and vegetables due to sprays is covered in references E5, G67, L34, and W31. Mitchell (M89) reviewed the spectrographic determination of fluorine in plants, soils, and related materials (see other references on emission spectroscopy in Section V-E).
The determination of fluorine in insecticides and sprays is discussed in references B32, B76, C28, D62, D63, D64, D65, D66, E5, E17, G67, H23, K67, L33, L34, RIO, S60, S61, S64, S88, and W31. A number of procedures (B72, C29, C95, E19, I I , 12, K62, L2, W16) cover the deter
mination of fluorine in wood preservatives and in treated wood.
2. Animals
A number of analytical methods have been described for the detection and determination of fluorine in body fluids and tissues (e.g., C93, F40, G32, G33, G52, L20, M34, M35) and, more specifically, in blood (G17, K61, M62, S85, S86, W80). Other typical procedures are given in refer
ences A33, C14, C15, C17, C18, C93, G17, G19, G20, G16, G32, K61, K66, L20, M34, M35, M55, M56, M57, M58, M62, M105, RIO, S32, S37, S85, S86, S119, W19, and W66.
Specialized methods have been developed for the determination of fluorine in bones and in teeth. In general, these methods can be supple
mented by procedures intended for the determination of fluorine in minerals and phosphates. Procedures specifically applicable to bones and teeth include those in references B45, B86, C33, C68, C94, D26, F l , F5, F26, F27, G48, L47, M4, M8, M40, M103, O10, 0 9 , 012, P3, S47, S59, S92, S109, T54, and V I 1 .
B. FERTILIZERS, PHOSPHATES, AND PHOSPHATE ROCKS
The question as to whether fluorine-containing fertilizers can cause plants to have a fluorine content toxic to grazing livestock or to other animals and human beings eating such crops has stimulated search for reliable methods for the determination of small amounts of fluorine in phosphatic material. Typical methods for fertilizers and phosphatic samples (including inorganic and organic fluorophosphates) are given and discussed in references A5, B88, C28, D7, F42, G30, H21, H64, 16, 17, J l , K24, M12, M15, M19, M24, M48, M83, M103, 014, P43, R16, R20, R23, R24, R25, R26, R27, R29, R31, R50, S77, T7, U2, V9, W4, and W32.
Isakov (16) has covered the determination of fluorine in the gases and solutions obtained in the production of superphosphate. Ahrens (A5) has described an emission spectrographic method for fluorine in phosphate rock which is applicable to as low a concentration as 0.02 % F. Mason and Ashcraft (M48) have described the determination of as little as 0.0003 to 0.09 % F in phosphoric acid and trisodium phosphate. Hill and Reynolds (H64) have described the colorimetric determination of fluorine in monofluorophosphate.
C. FOODS AND BEVERAGES
The literature on the general determination of fluorine in foods, food products, and foodstuffs is quite large, as is indicated by the following specific references: A16, A19, A23, C39, C55, C64, C71, C72, C73, C75, C76, C93, D2, D3, D4, D5, D7, D9, D10, D46, E17, F24, F27, G9, G10, G17, G30, G54, G67, H73, K25, K45, L19, L32, L33, L34, L45, M3, M5, M58, M105, R55, R59, S22, S47, V i l , W12, W18, W35, W36, W38, W39, and W40. References for the toxicological assay of fluorine in food can be found in Section VII-A.
Representative procedures for related types of products include those for butters and margarines (D46); table salt (C54, C55, F29); baking powder ( B l l , D8, L33, L34, MHO, M i l l , M112, M113, M114, M115, P17); meat (B71, C76, M96, N21); fish (L32); gelatin (M95); preserves and jellies (D46); alcoholic beverages (A16, B12, C66, C76, C80, D46, F26, F 27, F42, H55, K19, L27, M61, R19, SI 19, W18, W79); spray residues on food products (H73, L34, see Section VII-A-1); and feeding stuffs (D5, D9, E17, M34).
D. ROCKS, MINERALS, AND ORES
Many of the methods described in previous sections of the present chapter for the detection, separation, and determination of fluorine were originally developed for the examination and analysis of various types of minerals and rocks. Typical procedures for various types of rocks and minerals which are also usually applicable to ores and soils are covered in references A l l , A12, A13, A14, A16, B82, C96, D21, D29, D30, F6, F12, F13, F14, F20, F45, F73, G17, G22, G28, G30, G31, G48, G68, K58, L24, L28, L33, L47, M33, M39, MHO, 0 8 , O10, 014, P51, P52, R23, R24, R27, R28, R29, R31, R39, S3, S59, S77, S98, S102, S109, T28, T41, W45, and Y2. Emission spectroscopic methods have also been described (A5, A7, A8, B82, P3, S44). The specific determination of fluorine in soils and liming materials are discussed in references L33, M7, M8, M9, Ě Ç , M12, M14, M16, M15, M18, M20, M21, M22, M23, M89, R15, S28, and S44
(see also Section VII-B).
The specific determination of fluorine in silicates and fluorosilicates has also been thoroughly investigated (A7, A l l , B109, D71, H I , H2, H3, K3, M18, M83, N22, T8, T28; see also Section VII-G). Another area which has been well studied is the determination of fluorine in phos
phorites and apatites (P43, R24, R47, R48, R49, R50, S78, T7, U2; see also Section VII-B).
Methods have been described for various special types of ores and minerals, e.g., bauxite (P4); cryolite (C28, D70, F57, R37, S108, T18, T44, Z9) ; fluorite and fluospar (A22, B92, D71, L40, L46, M42, P50, P57, R37, T57); lithium minerals (G74); zinc ores (K20, R40, S51); blendes and sulfide ores (F60, K20, O10, 012, T28); lime (K46); and coal (C90, C91).
E. WATER
The literature on the determination of fluoride ion in water is volumi
nous with colorimetric methods, as might be expected, predominating.
The general references include the following: A29, B23, B56, B58, B74, B77, B83, C13, C16, C31, C42, C51, C56, C68, D2, D7, D29, D73, D74, E22, E23, F12, F27, F48, F50, F51, G4, G17, G23, H2, H42, 14, 18, J9, J8, K61, K62, L10, L U , L33, L34, M23, M31, M34, M39, M91, M92, M97, P33, P48, R25, S5, S6, S8, S38, S39, S45, S90, S92, S93, S95, S96, S98, S119, S120, T l , T4, T23, T39, T56, V l l , W6, W7, W l l , and Y12.
Specific references to potable water supplies are C62, D15, F25, F26, J19, L20, M123, S7, S40, S65, S89, S91, S109, T37, and T55. The A.P.H.A.
(A20) uses a colorimetric procedure (zirconium-alizarin method) with or without a prior Willard-Winter distillation.
A number of methods are concerned with the determination of fluorine in mineral waters (B14, C12, C18, C30, C31, C34, G36, 0 8 , P48). Okano and others have investigated the determination of fluorine in hot springs (B72, 04, 0 5 , 06, 07, S31). Wilcox (W46) studied water for irrigation use. Koehler (K46) critically investigated the determination of fluorine in lime intended for use in water treatment. Goldman and coworkers (G53) and Yoe and coworkers (S5) surveyed the detection of organic fluorine compounds in water, summarizing the results of a considerable number of investigations carried out by the Chemical Warfare Service.
The determination of fluorine in sea water is discussed in references A27, A37, M90, and T34.
A rapid (5-minute) test for fluoride in the range of 0.8 to 1.4 p.p.m. for use in the installation and adjustment of chemical-feed apparatus for the fluoridation of water supplies has been described by Rubin (R58). The LaMotte Company has available a kit for the colorimetric determination of fluoride in water in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 p.p.m., with an accuracy of
0.1 p.p.m. A method has been described for fluoride in tannery soak waters (D59).
F. AIR
The detection and determination of fluorine and fluorine compounds such as hydrogen fluoride in air has received considerable attention, although much of the resulting data and methods have remained unpub
lished in industrial and governmental files. Typical of the investigations which have been published are those of Yoe and coworkers (S5) on the determination of physiologically active monofluoro organic compounds in air, and of Yaffe (Yl) on atmospheric concentrations of fluorides (dusts, fumes, and gases) in aluminum-reduction plants.
The various subsections of Section II on the analysis of gaseous sam
ples contain references for and descriptions of various devices and methods for the detection and determination of gaseous fluorine com
pounds. Attention should be called to the halide meters (D24, H49, H79, M70) described in Sections II-D and IV for the continuous analysis of air for halogen-containing compounds. Fluorocarbons in air can be determined by infrared absorption (F55, W58, W59). Flagg (F40) describes a sam
pling device suitable for air containing hydrogen fluoride.
In Section IV various devices are described for the detection of fluorine and its compounds in air, e.g., a device consisting of a zirconium-salt-alizarin impregnated absorbent for detecting hydrofluoric acid vapor in air (M38). Thermal conductivity methods for hydrogen fluoride and fluorine in nitrogen or air-like mixtures have been described (K28, SI 12).
Luzina (L55) has described the determination of fluorides in aerosols by electrical precipitation and absorption in a liquid absorbent.
Other references which would be helpful in the analysis of air include C53, C77, D54, F40, H79, J18, K29, L55, M43, N I , N2, R I , R6, R71, S23, S45, S113, T52, T53, T58, V U , W52, W74, and Y10. Reference should be made to the paragraphs on toxicological analysis in Section VII-A-1.
G. MISCELLANEOUS
A considerable number of specialized methods have been described for the detection and determination of fluorine which do not fit into the preceding categories; a representative selection are indicated in the following paragraphs:
In glasses and enamels in the range of hundredths of 1 % to over 12%
(B22, D26, G28, H66, L47, P14, R74, S98, T38) ; sulfuric acid and oleum (S107); gases and solutions obtained in superphosphate production (16).
In chromium-plating baths (M47, 013, W60); nickel-plating baths (C67, H15); hydrofluoric acid-nitric acid stainless steel pickling baths
(M26) ; heat-treating salts (E24, P34) ; basic slag (S98, W15) ; welding flux (C52) ; steels (S68). In various stages of aluminum production (E24, P4, V6) and of magnesium production (P50, P51, V6).
In aluminum compounds (R7) ; beryllium compounds (C58, L39, R33, V2); borates and fluoroborates (A23, A24, B79, D62, K15, K20, L34, M3, M94, R33, R67, R75, R76, R79, S102, T42, T45, W1C); boron trifluoride (B79, M77, S130, W9); lime (K46); silicic acid " s o o t s " (R5); fluoro
silicates (A26, B2, B76, B98, B109, C l , D52, J10, K20, K43, L33, L34, L34, M18, M53, MHO, M116, S60, T9, T35, V3, V5); sodium chloride (F29); zirconium metal and compounds (C59, D25).
In rodenticides (E17) and insecticides (see Section VII-A-1). In tannery soak waters (D59). In pharmaceuticals (Al, P40, R4, S87). I n textiles (E19, H14, J16, S99).
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