BACKGROUND AND CONCEPTUALIZATION Related Work

Extant literature shows an increasing interest in mobile technology for educational purposes. It is argued that the use of mobile technology not only in computer science lessons but also in other subjects (e.g. science subjects) encourages students' motivation to learn. Research shows that technology's influence on learning is more involving than the usual conventional methods because learning continues virtually outside the classroom, in a real student’s everyday life environment (Naismith, et al. 2004). Ciampa (2013) explored how mobile learning technologies were related to motivation peculiarities and established that mobile technology use in learning provided opportunities to experience challenge, stimulated curiosity, provided wider collaboration possibilities. It is obvious that for today’s

students it already becomes a usual thing that any information devoted to learning is easily achieved, it can be found on the internet. A research carried out in Lithuania (Gudonienė, 2011) showed that the majority of students use smart mobile phones for internet searching (92.5%), also for logging on at internet cafes, learning environment journals and social networks for learning demand satisfaction (35.5%).

It is obvious, that a great amount of research has been devoted to the analysis of how and why students use mobile technology in their learning process, why mobile technology is used and what it offers or challenges. Fua and Hwangb (2018), conducted systematic research of scientific publications from 2007 to 2016 related to mobile technology-driven education. Mobile technology-based learning has been found to be more effective in cognitive, metacognitive and epistemological terms than internet-based learning (e.g., appropriate tools for learner understanding and concept transformation). Learners are making real progress due to social interaction. They work with a variety of information, communicate with peers and experts to construct and reflect meaningful knowledge. MT-based learning is a potential way of learning to facilitate knowledge acquisition, metacognitive skills, and epistemological beliefs by engaging students in collaborative learning. According to Viberg and Grönlund (2017), students use different mobile technologies for different purposes in their formal and self-directed learning environment. They like to use mobile technologies because of their affordability, flexibility, compatibility, and interactivity. Students often use mobile technology in non-formal education, i.e. finding some time for learning between the activities that are already planned. Agrawal and Parvez (2018) emphasized that mobile technology is a robust package of scientific advancement, compact and convenient. It's flexible, easy to use, compact, inexpensive, multi-functional, user-friendly learning approach.

On the other hand, research also showed a possible negative influence as well. The research carried out by Legkauskas (2013) showed that video games that teenagers play on computers, phones, and game consoles, can have a negative influence on motivation to start any other activity. The research by Ramasauskiene (2014) revealed that frequent use of mobile phones makes it hard to concentrate, shortens the time of live communication with friends, and has a negative impact on educational achievement results. Research also shows that the use of mobile technology causes interpersonal conflicts with teachers, parents, in this way, communication behaviour becomes worse (Phillips, Butt, & Blaszczynski, 2006).

Nevertheless, mobile technology use has a positive influence on teaching/learning. The research by Gray, Ryan, and Coulon (2004) showed that new technologies having occurred both in students’ and in teachers’ everyday life, make the teachers have IT usage skills, convey them to students and provide them with new knowledge and skills. Some of the research showed that MT use has a positive influence with regard to students who lack motivation because these devices were especially useful creating teacher and students’

relationships, which in turn facilitated the learners’ involvement in the education process (Ison, Hayes, Robinson, & Jamieson, 2004; Walsh, Lemon, Black, Mangan, & Collin, 2011). In spite of the fact that many of the students can be better prepared in the technology sphere than teachers, it is important to create a suitable teaching/learning environment for the latter, which would allow them to effectively use mobile technologies (Ferry, 2009). The

educational environment factor is significant because this can build trust in the use of mobile technologies (Kim, Kim, D-S., Choi, 2016).

Research Model and Measures

The usefulness of mobile teaching and learning (MTL) has been conceptualized as a second-order factor that loads on four dimensions (first-order constructs): motivation to learn expectancy (ML), better understanding expectancy (UU), social learning usefulness expectancy (UL), and usefulness for teaching (UT). The research model is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Research model.

The motivation to learn expectancy (ML) is measuring the increased motivation of students as anticipated by teachers. It is expected that by introducing mobile technology in class students will be less stressed and bored. It is also expected that the lessons will be perceived as more interesting and attractive since students will feel in control by using their own devices (Lamanauskas et al., 2019).

A better understanding expectancy (UU) is measuring the anticipated benefits as regards the understanding of concepts (Fua & Hwangb, 2018; Lamanauskas et al., 2019). By using educational applications on their own devices, students will pay more attention and, consequently, will become able to use their knowledge in a creative way.

Social learning expectancy (UL) refers to the opportunities to extend learning in nonformal contexts (such as visits to museums) and learn in a collaborative way. In both cases, mobile technology is expected to favour social learning (Ciampa, 2013; Naismith, et al. 2004).

Usefulness for teaching (UT) is measuring the new opportunities created by mobile technology (Isson et al, 2004). Teachers will be able to prepare more interesting lessons and to find ways to better explain difficult concepts (Lamanauskas et al., 2019). Moreover, teachers may find it easier to give learning tasks to students. The first-order constructs and measures are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Constructs and measures.

ML Learning motivation expectancy

ML1 By using mobile technology students may be less bored by the traditional methods ML2 By using mobile technology students may feel in control to learn with their own devices ML3 By using mobile technology students may find the lesson more attractive

ML4 By using mobile technology students are less stressed and learning is accepted as a game ML5 By using mobile technology students may find the lesson more interesting

UU Better understanding expectancy

UU1 Mobile technology may stimulate students to pay more attention to lessons

UU2 Mobile learning stimulates creativity

UU3 Mobile technology may help to better understand the lesson UL Social learning expectancy

UL1 Mobile technology may help to learn outside class UL2 Mobile technology may help the collaborative learning UT Usefulness for teaching

UT1 With mobile technology, I could prepare more interesting lessons UT2 Mobile technology helps to give learning tasks to students UT3 With mobile technology, I could better explain difficult concepts UT4 With mobile technology, I could better stimulate the students to learn UT5 Mobile technology enables working with simulations and virtual labs UT6 Mobile technology helps the evaluation process

EMPIRICAL STUDY