Approaches in related studies

According to Sackmann (1992) many studies have been rather limited in that they focused on predefined subcultures (Gregory, 1983; Martin et al., 1983) or consider culture as homogenous (Schein, 1985). Sackmann takes up the challenge of detecting subcultures using the criteria of cultural knowledge. The study involves 52 interviews, the majority of whom were selected across hierarchical levels, within one organisation and another 30 interviews at Head Office and in the PC division. The outcome confirms the complexity of organisations as well as questioning the importance of function in the formation of subcultures. Sackmann (1992) adopted an interpretive or cognitive perspective in order to assess subcultures within an organisation and considers the aspect of the sense-making of individuals within the organization.

Hofstede (1998) undertook a study to identify organisational subcultures using an empirical approach. The questionnaire used six dimensions to distinguish 20 organisational units from each other. The six dimensions were: process oriented vs. results oriented; employee oriented vs. job oriented; parochial vs. professional; open system vs. closed system; loose vs. tight

79 control; and normative vs. pragmatic (Hofstede, 1998; 4). Within this study, there is an element of market orientation in the 6^th dimension with pragmatic units being seen as market-driven in contrast to normative units viewing their relation to the outside world as ‘the implementation of inviolable rules’ (Hofstede, 1998; 4). Using this previous study and its results, Hofstede (1998) identified subcultures using a Hierarchical Cluster Analysis using Ward’s method. A dendogram was used as a statistical technique for grouping mean scores, resulting in a ‘tree diagram’. The results indicated that subcultures were groups as: 1) Professional subculture (highly educated); 2) Administrative subculture (women); and 3) Customer interface subculture (away from head office and constant interaction with customers face-to-face). The study indicates one possible method for using a culture measurement instrument and statistical analysis for producing empirical results in an existing organisation.

Iivari and Abrahamson (2002) conducted a study of the interaction between organisational subcultures and user-centred design with a case study. The methodology involved interviews as well as other research material such as assessment reports and research diaries. Iivari and Abrahamson (2002) cite a number of other studies as evidence that subcultures can be identified according to language as “language expresses membership and status, and thus provides a basis for identification” (Iivari and Abrahamson, 2002; 3). Schein (1996a/b) is cited for this identification with his typology of occupational subcultures. Language has not been selected as a means of identifying subcultures as the organisation includes almost 1000 employees and to sufficiently detect all possible subcultures, it was felt that a small sample of interviews would not be enough to uncover all the subcultures.

A quantitative approach is favoured as a means of obtaining responses from as many members as possible, increasing the size of the net with which to detect subcultures.

Furthermore, as it came about from the pilot study that the respondents were very concerned about being identified, it was felt that there could be reluctance, if not resistance, to recording the interviews of respondents. However, following positive responses to the questionnaire, a qualitative study was undertaken on the subcultures using semi-structured interviews.

However, due to limitations on the length of this dissertation and the wealth of data from the questionnaires, it was decided that including the qualitative side would overcomplicate this work, affecting readability and flow. Therefore, the qualitative study has been omitted.

80 When considering previous related studies, the market-orientation aspect also requires consideration. According to Kaspar (2005) many previous studies attempted to reveal a market-oriented culture by examining the marketing practices of organisations. It is pointed out by Kaspar (2005) that this is too simplistic an approach as the culture is only measured in terms of the way it is reflected in marketing practices and doesn’t give the full picture. Kaspar (2005) sought to identify the dimensions relevant to a market-oriented organisation by using Hofstede’s (1991) dimensions. Hypotheses were set up as to which dimensions would apply to a market-oriented organisation and which would not. Although some correlations were found for dimensions of a market-oriented organisation, the study took place in the private sector, a different context to that of this study. Furthermore, the study set out to test if any of Hofstede’s dimensions could be applied to a market-orientation rather than prove empirically they do.

In relation to examining market orientation in higher education, the work by Hemsley-Brown and Oplatka (2010) of analysing the market orientation using three dimensions has already been mentioned in section 1.6. Although the 20-item MARKOR (market orientation scale) developed by Kohli, Jaworski & Kumar (1993) has been used in studies in higher education, it was felt that the instrument developed by Hemsley-Brown and Oplatka in 2010 may present a more up-to-date instrument that considers current trends and the range of considerations for a market orientation in higher education.

As highlighted in the table in bold type, very few instruments directly stipulate a dimension directly relating to the market orientation, there is the Competing Values Framework (Cameron and Quinn, 1999), MacKenzie’s Culture Questionnaire (Mackenzie, 1995) and Cooke and Lafferty’s (1987) Organizational Culture Inventory. Mackenzie’s instrument has not been found to be used in studies concerned with the market-orientation of organisations, perhaps as the dimension stipulates a consumer orientation rather than an overall market orientation involving a focus on competitors, maintaining relationships with staff on the front line, innovation and so on. The Organizational Culture Inventory is considered long and complex to complete and only refers to a competitive orientation as a part of the market orientation. The Competing Values Framework directly stipulates a market orientation of culture, considers the complexity of culture with a range of competing values and has been developed initially in higher education, making it the most suitable for this study. Hofstede’s (1991) dimensions have been used in Higher Education to assess organisational culture as it

81 changes from a planned to a market economy, but doesn’t indicate a market type in the dimensions. Furthermore, from the options available the OCAI has been used a lot in higher education, for example Pushnykh and Chemeris (2006) assess the changes that have taken place in a case study of Tomsk Polytechnic University using the OCAI. Therefore, this study uses the Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument of the Competing Values Framework (Cameron and Quinn, 1999) to assess the organisational culture as a whole.

A number of these have also been undertaken using the OCAI in higher education. Sanderson (2006) examined university culture using the competing values framework. Although this study didn’t allow for the possibility of subcultures existing in the faculty that was studied, it did allow for a division in values between the administrative and academic functions. This study serves to show that the OCAI has been applied in a higher education context and that it allows for some of the complexities peculiar to HEIs. Paparone (2003) used the OCAI to identify subculture types at a military university and relate them to system-wide planning efforts. However, this analysis used a slightly different methodology from that of Hofstede (1998) in that a discriminant analysis was undertaken as a means of identifying the subcultures. Three subcultures were found and it was highlighted that claims of a monolithic culture in the organisation would result in misleading findings as the subcultures exhibited significantly different values and culture types in relation to the overall organisation.

Therefore, this study will seek to utilise the OCAI that has been used in higher education and Hungary, combined with the methodology for identifying subcultures used by Hofstede (1998).

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