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S i l e n c e a n d
S i l e n c i n g in
C h i l d r e n ’ s L i t e r a t u r e
ELINA DRUKER, BJORN SUNDMARK,
ÀSA WARNQVIST, AND MIA Ô S T ER LU N D (EDS.)
MAKADAM
MAKADAM PUBLISHERS GÖTEBORG ' STO CKH OLM
\\ \V \V. MAKAO AM BO K.S E
Published uith support fro m
The Sven and Dagm ar Solen Foundation (Sven och D agm ar Salens Stiftelse) The Longman Culture Foundation (Stiftelsen Löngm anska kulturfcnden) Helge Ax:son Johnsons Foundation (Helge Axrson Johnsons Stiftelse) and congress proceedings
Studies Published by the Swedish Institute fo r C hildrens Books 15Ö
Silence and Silencing in Childrens Literature
© the authors and M akadam Publishers 2 0 2 1 Printed by Bulls Graphics, H alm stad 2 0 2 1 Cover illustration © Linda Bondestam
© for illustrations, see picture sources on p. 3 6 1 ISBN 9 78 -9 1-70 6 1-36 7-8
ISSN 0347-5387
C O N T E N T S
Foreword 9
E L IN A D R U K E R , B JÖ R N S U N D M A R K , Á SA W A R N Q V IS T , A N D M IA Ö S T E R L U N D
Introduction 13
M U LTIPLE FACETS O F S IL E N C E A N D S IL E N C IN G
V A N E S S A J O O S E N
Just Listen? 24
Silence, Silencing, and Voice in the Aesthetics, Reception, and Study of Children’s Literature
B O E L W E S T IN
A Hundred Miles of Silence 42
The Moomin Stories ofTove Jansson
R O B E R T A. D A V IS
Silence, Sound, and Sleep 6i
The Experience of Lullabies
NARRATING S IL E N C E
A N N A K É R C H Y
The Acoustics of Nonsense in Lewis Carroll's Alice Tales 86
K A R EN C O A T S
Line Breaks, Page Turns, and Gutters
Formal Moments of Silence in Children’s Texts
A N N - S O F I E P E R S S O N
Narrative Strategies Giving Voice to the Silenced Subject
Th e H o rse in Fiction for C h ild ren
A D D R ES S IN G A ET O N O R M A T IV E S IL E N C E S
E M M A R E A V
Secrets, Stealth, and Survival
T h e Silent C h ild in the V id eo G a m e s Little N ightm ares and IN S ID E
S A R A P A N K E N I E R W E L D
The Silencing of Children’s Literature
Th e C a se o f D aniil K h a rm s and the Little O ld Lady
L A N C E W E L D Y
The Queerness of the Man-Child
N a r c is s is m and S ile n cin g in A strid L in d g re n ’s Karlson on the Roof Series
K A T H L E E N F O R R E S T E R
Nature Unnested
Kin and Kind in Sw itched Egg C h ild ren 's Sto ries
S T R U C T U R A L A N D S O C IET A L S IL EN C E S AN D S IL E N C IN G
T E M I O D U M O S U
What Dreams May Come?
D ealing with H isto ry and D eco lo n isin g Im agery for Children
M A R IA L A A K S O
Colonialism is Sticky, It Gets Into and Onto Everything
A V isu a l R e sp o n se to T e m i O d u m o s u ’s Keynote
The (Silent) Archival Stories of Children's Literature
Munro Leaf, Cultural Tours, and the Forrrut.on o f C r Lr.vc-w 'te in 1960s A s u
H E R O IA N A H A K IM
“Unsilencing” Chinese Indonesians through Children s L'e'a*^
FA YE D O R C A S Y U N G
The Silencing of Children’s Literature Publishing in Hong <ong
J O S H U A S I M P S O N
Silence and Absence in the Political Discourse on
Section 28 and Children’s Literature in the United Kingdom
T R A U M A A N D T R A U M A T IC S IL E N C E S
A N N A K A R L S K O V S K Y C G E B J E R C
The Silent Voices of Witness Literature
The Refugee C risis in Danish Ch.ldren’s Literature s*nce 201 s
H E L E N K IN G
Seeking Asylum, Speaking Silence
Speech, Silence, and Psychosocial Trauma in Beverley N a «doe's The Other Side o f Truth
M A T E U S 2 £ \ V lE T L IC K I
“It felt better to stay quiet"
Miming as a Non-Verbal Way of Copmg Trauma n Kutry s Mutters o f Silence (2019)
e 25 6
276
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Series ^¿túzrec ly -re Sw edsr -stt^ ts rcr Children's Ессч-
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Foreword 9 Sweden. :u - :* August . r e r - m : ■* l
at Stockholm C n rv trsst; b ee t m A -rir"_ a a d tne l r . ■ A'•
and Theology a: Abo Aka d e m Lnrverarr. Fm-and. The -re— >er. ' ~ c "
Processor Elina Dmker. Protesu-r r ~ '- ■ t . r a r o : 1 - - - are also the ed :rr> : th j S v v T*: : - r . s . .
gress o f the International Research Sccter- * r O iid n c a * L acrarurr and celebrated the star: c: the >cc:rr. > : r . . v . r v ^ \ r r . : : *•
delegates Iro n >r eountr.es tre k part n t r r . congress in IRSCL history
The congress recened generous ¿nanciul support rr m the RJo*hur_*er - ' * bileumsfond Foundation (Rikshankem luhtkuntsiood . the S o o e n : v* c n n Literature in Finland (S\en>ka litten ru rsx 1 >*apct » Finland the >*rd-^~ >-e*
search Council (VetenskapsridetK the Swedish Cultural Foundat-on ut ru -lo ad (Svenska kulturtonden i F inland!. the Nord.*. Culture Fund N. r d a * s—tur- tond), Malmö University Malmö lu h e n ite t) , Stockholm Vstvcthtt (Stock
holms universitet), Abo Akadcmi L'mvcruty (Abo Akadem: the S-»cd**h Institute tor Childrens Books (SsenXa barnboksixisururet'' and the IRhCL. it also received generous support from the tbücwm g sponsors. C .t\ o : Ntoduhoim (Stockholms stad), Moomin Characters Oy Ltd. .Astrid Lxndgren A5. Raben a: Sjögren. Junibacken. the Astrid Lmdgren Society ^Astnd Lindgren sallskapelk Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award, Bonnier Carisen. Lilia Pirartoriaget. Altabe- ta, Natur & Kultur, Bergh» tbrlag, and the Nordic Council C hildren and Young Peoples Literature Prize (Nordiska ridels bam - och ungviom shneraturpm ).
ANNA KÉRCHY
The Acoustics of Nonsense in Lewis Carroll’s Alice Tales
Lewis Carrolls A lice stories subvert co n ven tio n al m o d e s o f “mature” rep
resentation with the help o f n arrato lo gical strategies that allo w verbal agency for implied child readers/authors.1 H is lite ra ry n o n se n se h as liberated juvenile audiences o f all eras by assisting them in b re a k in g ou t o f the prison-house of socially assigned m eanings through va n g u a rd ist rh eto rics, illustration, and book design. These tactics invite child readers to in teract in quisitively with the texts and immerse them selves in the sen so rial aco u stic qualities o f discourse.
They also urge youngsters to picture soun ds, im a g in e sign language, talk with/
as animals, and fantasise about the fu n ctio n in g o f lan g u age b eyon d the custom
ary verbal registers o f signification. These n o n sen se fa iry -ta le fantasies, then, outline an egalitarian agenda that m akes h eard the so c ia lly “othered” whose voice and autonomy are often stifled. B y e n d o w in g ch ild re n w ith a unique, dis
tinctive voice o f their own, giving them the righ t b oth to sp eak up and to be listened to, and by playfully disrupting adult lo gic, lan g u age, an d authority, the ludic politics o f Carrollian nonsense con tributed to the lib eratio n and the com
ing of age o f childrens literature.
“What Would You Do?M : Invitations to Inquiry and Interaction
Much o f the appeal o f C arrolls A lice stem s from the am b ig u ity o f this chatty, yet often hushed, rebellious but frustrated child w h o m u st cu rio u sly oscillate between discursive agency and disem pow erm ent th ro u gh o u t h er Wonderland adventures. Alice is a polite little bourgeois girl w h o relates w ith patience, trust, and a benevolent open-hearted curiosity to all the odd creatures she meets on her picaresque journey. As Gillian B eer has suggested, A lice keeps asking questions about the reality surrounding her; she is ench an ted by its incom prehensibility and seeks mutuality and learns em path y th rou gh So cratic dialo- gism (116 ). In Kit Kelens view, her inquisitive nature keeps h er in the domain
o f childhood cu riosity but also leads her towards knowledge that will allow her to becom e an adult w ho can formulate her own answers (7;). For Perry Nodelman, A lices constant questioning of the reality around her. demanding explanations from the creatures she meets and interrogating the explanations they oiler, turns C arro lls story into a "metafictiona! account of any readers encounter with any fictional w orld” (Nodelman 17).
Its peculiar language gam es make Carrolls nonsense fantasies delightful, baffling, even, as Sissy HcliFand Nadia Iiutt describe it, “tantalizing" for readers, especially because A lices dream -voyage is closer to suspended animation than teleological Bildungsromart development. Despite her multiple metamorphoses, she rem ains a seven-year-old child, inhibited in her speech. Alices experience o f claustrophobic confinem ent and schizoid identity crisis often result in epi
sodes o f selective m utism and miscommunication, when she does not seem to find the right w ords or fails to receive sufficient answers. I ler seemingly endlcvs series o f strange encounters all prove to be frustrated acts of communication.
No wonder she becom es perplexed and irritated by being forced to listen to the countless crazy rhym es and tall tales the Wonderland inhabitants relate, instead o f helping her find out w ho in the world she is.
Nevertheless, C a rro lls text holds indubitable vanguardist potential for em
powering you ng readers (D usinberre 5). After her struggles in a world ruled by adult language she cannot master, where she is too often hushed by authority figures - an experience that child readers can certainly relate to - Alice claims the right to be loquacious and dares to rebel against the pseudo-adults's \er bal bullying. She rejects the royal imperative “ Hold your longue!" (Carroll ar*J Gardner 129 ) m eant to silence her during the final trial scene. Hence, she re futes repressive V ictorian pedagogical practices such as rote learning and con
duct books, including "C hildren should be seen and not heard in the company o f adults”. H er loud protest "StulF and nonsense! [... | You are nothing but a pick of cards” (12 9 ) breaks the spell o f Wonderland and makes her wake up. But the Victorian social reality she returns to is radically altered in its distribution of power and discursive positionalities. Her rebellious performative speech act allows her to m ature into a storyteller: we know from the framing narratne that once she grow s up she w ill narrate tales o f her adventures to her own children.
Thus, she em pow ers you n g readers by embracing fantasising agency, a gift 0:
girlish im aginativeness, the ability to speak up, share stories, and create demo
cratic intergenerational b onding where child and adult are equal partners v*ho alternate betw een interchangeable positions of storyteller and listener.
C arro lls prefatory poem to Wonderland clearly pays tribute to chi!d tnends and m uses as co-authors. The Liddell sisters who accompanied him all in the golden afternoon” (C arro ll and G ardner
7)
on the legendaryrowing
expedition not only inspired the A lice tales, but also took an active part in shaping thenarrative course of events by interrupting “ the e xtem p o re ro m a n ce ” (Cohen 31) with questions, comments, and requests. (“ Let there b e n o n sen se in it!” was their most vital imperative.) Hie frame verse m ockin gly co n ten d s that the voice ofhis young travelling companions is much lou der than the adu lt au th o rs: “ Yet what can one poor voice avail / against three tongues to g e th e r?” H is “ breath too weak to stir the tiniest feather” is contrasted with th eir "h a p p y voices”. The fictional figure of Alice called collectively into b eing is also p rim a rily associated with her uninhibited verbal skills: she is a dream ch ild “ in frie n d ly chat with bird or beast” (Carroll and Gardner 7).
As Björn Sundmark observes, the dialogic q uality o f the tale, allow ing for audience participation and reminiscent o f the oral fairy -ta le trad itio n , is em phatically foregrounded in Ihe Nursery Alice (18 9 0 ), an ad aptatio n designed for early or pre-reader children. The original Alice stories m ove fro m the “oral liter
ary mode” of the first manuscript version, Alices Adventures U nderground, to the
“literary' orality” of the revised Alices Adventures in W onderland, characterised by "clichés, repetitions, and the omnipresent, intim ate vo ice o f the narrator”
(126). We also find metatextual asides meant to generate re a d c rly interaction and conversations that continue beyond the pages o f the b o o k . F o r example, in Wonderland, while Alice is falling down the rabbit hole, h er absent-m inded soliloquy is only interrupted by the omniscient n a rrato rs b rack eted com m en
tary that directly addresses the implied readers, urgin g them to ad d their verbal contribution to the storyline: “and she tried to cu rtsey as she spoke - fancy curtseying as you’re falling through the air! D o you th in k y o u co u ld m anage it?”
(14). As Jack Zipes has remarked, the greatest m erit o f the A lic e b o o k s is their ability to make child readers think for them selves (73). I w o u ld add that they also encourage them to speak for themselves.
Because of their manifold interpretive layers, the A lic e b o o k s lend them selves easily to being read as “writerly texts”, in R olan d B arth e s’s sense o f the term. They explode literary codes, destabilise expectations, an d assign readers an active role in the construction of meanings w ith the aim o f offerin g textual
“bliss” (Barthes 21) by allowing for play with language, a p ro liferatio n o f signi
fications, and eventually an escape from confined subject p osition s. However, Michelle Pagni Stewart’s notion of “speakerly text” is eq u ally suited to describ
ing these illustrated literary nonsense books w here “gaps/ten sion s” between sound and sense, between words and images, betw een the o ral an d the written, the told and the untold inspire readers’ im aginations, in vite co n versation s (be
tween teller and listener) and retellings, too. The N ursery A lice is a pictorial-oral distillation of the Wonderland narrative. The “synaesthesis o f w ords/pictures and orality” (Stewart 47), the “give and take between teller (or [ ... ] reader) and the audience” (43), the instability and free-play o f m ean in gs, the perform ativity of storytelling negotiating textual meanings, the m ultiplicity o f vo ices resulting
from audience in teraction, and "the stories within stories” (46) add to the initial narrative rather than d etracting from it.
In The N ursery Alice, textual instances o f the narratives oral qualities in
clude the typical expressive and em otive phrases used in oral storytelling; for instance, “and lo an d b eh old ” (C arroll, Nursery 10). We find rhetorical ques
tions requ iring su p p ort for the continuation for the story, as in “Would you like to hear w hat it w as that she dream ed about?” (1); or promoting readers sympathetic im m ersion in A lice s adventures and encouraging improvisation and alternative storylin es w ith each retelling: “What do you think she did?" (5, 17, 20, 26). R eferences to illustrations m ock the narratives play with readerly expectations b y facilitating o r com plicating the guesswork: “if you look at the picture, you 'll see exactly w hat A lice saw when she got inside” (30); “Lets try if we can m ake out all the tw elve [m em bers o f the ju ry]” (52). The direct physical involvement o f the aud ience is foregrounded in the reading experience and the making (up) o f the sto ry: “ i f you turn up the corner of this leaf, you’ll have Alice looking at the grin the sam e w ay she was looking at the Cat - not in the least frightened” (3 3). In all A lice editions, oral, conversational narrative features abound to m axim ally stim ulate readers’ co-authorial performance and boost interactive delights.1
“Sound F irst-S e n se Afterwards”: Boosting Acoustic Agency
In C arrolls literary non sen se, the vocal qualities o f the neologisms tie in with oral tradition in the fo rm o f sto ry telling associated with children’s literature read out loud b y adults to pre-readers or b y early readers to themselves. Vocalis
ing written w ords im proves phonological awareness, facilitates semantic com
prehension, and p ro vid es a m etadiscursive perspective on meaning formation com plem ented b y the sensorial pleasure o f mouth movements. The affective bonds built betw een teller and listener facilitate the collective agency integral to oral interpretation.
Paradoxically, A lic e s d ream story is a ve ry loud text that also foregrounds the acoustic qualities o f w ak in g life. In a prologue to Wonderland, Alices old
er sister continues her sib lin g’s fantasising in a brief passage that perfectly il
lustrates h ow the insistence on orality - eight onomatopoeias and four words referring to vo ice, noise, cries, and clam our in one single sentence! - can dis
organise hierarchical stru ctures o f m eaning, call to life Wonderland, and make everyday lived reality seem enchanting, by celebrating imagination as a foun
dation o f sisterly solidarity.
So she sat on, w ith closed eyes, and half believed herself in Wonderland, though she kn ew she had but to open them again, and all would change
tlliiun,',luyrl.. H'*« woul>i!<*■ iMtly |U*lliiiK in III* w im li .111.1III. |iii.(|
iiw Jin » l..il.' M viiif ..I lli. i..«l> iI ^mII|Iiib|.-whi|iii wimiM . )u i i(i,. i„ li n H i j i i r l u l l * ,m i .I llirlJim n 'i » liilll. Ii‘'i l‘ i ill*' v»l* ‘ 'll lli‘ tli‘ |>I|. |.I l«it w ulilirtw r/i iilllirlM li^ lli. tin I. !' Hi ill.- '¡iy|i|i< m , nii.l nil III. .illi. i .jmrr fiulM i VHfuIdilMIJgt 1 Jlrw) in lilr t OniUM'd < |(4»lM»il| of flu* busy Uim wlulr the lowing of flu -« oil I* in flit- distant i w ould l.i It flit' jiU tfoiilji M<hI- IuHle* hravy sobs. (Carroll and f jard m i m i ij>)
(lit ( «ifolliJM text h menu to be read out loud by Ideal reader« solitary
"children of all ages" (as the dcdh at Ion suggest«), as wi ll a« m oth er* and nurse«
mUrrlsMing pre reader«, or in witty com panies of b o u rg e o is d ra w in g room s - wlm mil gain ikousIK pleasure from the «(range n oises of W onderland, Ihese holies include* (iryplion shrieks, Queenly cries, and M o ck T u rtle sobs, which overwhelm the «nothing, toned-down audioscape o f w a k in g life,
( ’arrolls tales attract child readers partly because o f th eir reb ellio u s orallty, Ain«* asks questions and speaks up against the adult vo ices that try to silence her. She is also trying to acquire a taste of all the o d d -so u n d in g expression s she has never heard before. Much like readers of the A lice b o o k s, she feeds on words learned from the characters she meets in W onderland's rich ly verbal realm , Al (lie Mad lea harty, the Haller does not let her drin k an y tea. Instead she is en tertained by the dormouse« tale about the little girls w ho live in the treacle well where, to satisfy one’s hunger, one can only draw th in gs b e g in n in g “ with an M such as mouse traps, and the m oon, and m em ory, and m u c h n e ss" (Carroll and Gardner Ho). In the second volume too, h aving stepped th ro u gh the look
ing glass, Alice emerges as a voracious reader w ho stru ggle s to m ake sense o f the Jabberwocky poems mirrored mouthful o f nonsense, "'I w as h rillig, and the slithy loves / Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; All m im sy w ere the horogoves / And the mome ratlis outgrabc" she reads, adm itting to h e rs e lf that she has bitten oil more than she can chew. She ends up p ro vid in g a d ic tio n a ry defini
tion of the nonsense genre by mumbling to herself: "It seem s v e ry pretty but its rather hard to understand! Som ehow it seem s to fill m y head with ideas - only I don’t exactly know what they are!" (C a rro ll and G a rd n e r 1 5^»)- Carroll invented Wonderland not as a hom e fo r fairies hut as a place where all creatures are endowed with a language they use to “ w restle, tug, rejoice, and claim authority with" (Foulkes in beer 106), C a rro llia n lan g u age games illustrate how the disciplinary and transgressive natures o f d isc o u rse are nec
essarily concomitant and how tile creation o f rules also m e an s that these rules can be violated. Carroll enters the "free zone" w here ch ild ren d w ell, w here the struggles for and against language take place sim u ltan eo u sly (B e e r 3). Liter- ary nonsense balances "between verbal chaos and verbal co n strain ts, between the need for meaning and the refusal o f m eaning” (L ece rcle , “ T ran slate1* 90),
bitwt&n §4uH » n d ih ltd k h r * 0 # m $4 rtjyrtfrgfjoji o * h , m ^ , V/*W I'hilov/f/lt't f1 an \a* *i*V f'i
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n ">y;nUoti oi <4* „ f , .
frfffi MUlUtlion and \UU t\H*\*\\t>n < hi »U '/!✓ f \,4tA J 'rtn y t/ s > , „ , r , ^ lfii' fre*- rrii'uw of th‘‘ infantile irtnvtrtiysl ^ 4 ^ .,,>,r.A k, repetition, rhythm, and vo'alny that p*w>*-*i* */.*■ //,*, , ^ r,j h'SS, bill no# VOh'b'SS, infanta, frm lry /a tr 4 t r y n v A 'i u r ty * * * . t f.'s s t 4/ f . *, llir text, as Julia Kfisb'vas jnyt fvrtiuiyh'4\\y tnhftr^d u v *• >■ <',*, , / revolutionary poetic latty/nty/r tuyyrits IfrydutwH v ,f If. (;
mother'* wording, Carroll "tapped ¿ re a lism * tyy% rh4u * ,y • ov - <
tl-lingulstic other world that [hr-J Pb-nidif'd with \ \ s r 4f\y y . 4s\< /' • (
153
). 'Ihus h<' could o/c/'l in mediatin'/, brlw rrn "thr < h.Id h* * v,-, new and (lie adult for whom language hat loti all tf*frrvL'^w ' fj««,Chilian (Jeers d e tc rip lio n o f the A lic* IkhA C podbund * i ? . f * - ,. ^ hood e xp erien ce and their hidden and abiding p re ttie r in aduk U* y .¿yr •* - onates p erfectly w ith K rtstcvan theory.
'I he babble conversation o f the infant hr* txmeafh die adult u !) \rLr v - m unication is plosive, punctuated by nouns, each w»ih a broad r ' **.. </, m eaning, and inform ed by cadence* o f inquiry, assertion, and ¿rr It n revived In puns, exclam ations, sing-song, laughter, and cries current ir, speech, (b eer a)
When we spell out lou d the nam es o f slithy toves, mimsy b o ro p w i. r " / ratlis, and ju b ju b b irds, the “ sonorous jo y" or “jouissance* iK m trsa. I f e v U o f literary non sen se pushes at the borders o f signification. It furrgrourdi the Infantile em b o d ie d p erfo rm ative experience o f “doing things with K«*ardi*
creating and d isru p tin g m ean in gs by releasing the vocal charge of serbal f-.rr *
Discursive Malfunctions: Sleeptalking and Stuttering
Vocal liberation am i verbal frustration coincide in nonsense. For lidiei Delcuze, n on sen se is an expressive m ode - when the carnisalevquc Voltape of language realizes an o th e r w o rld " - to the “grotesque trinity of child, poet. and m adm an” (i.ugiV K3). Alice's cu rio u s adventures with ilkxgicaUy misbehaving language w ere c e rtain ly in spired l>y C arro lls own confrontations with the lirn its ol sp eakability im p o se d by V ictorians codes o f conduct, the philosophic¿1 struggle w ith w o rd s inapt for con veying intended meanings, as well as his own speech im p ed im en t, resulting in com m unication llaws he eventually trans
form ed in to children 's poetry. C arro ll was fascinated by theories ot mind-voy
aging, which allowed dreamers to “m igrate into fa iry la n d ” (W arner 205-220) and revealed to the closed “ inner eye” un speakable th in gs n o rm a lly unavaila
ble to sensory perception. Since dream ing p ro vid es the n a rrative fram ew ork of both Alice books, the curious journeys can be in terpreted as p ro d u cts o f Alices dreaming imagination. Nonsensical language gam es can b e associated with somniloquys illogical verbal perform ances that fall b ey o n d con sciou s, rational control, grounded in an acoustic uncanny, w h ereb y fa m ilia r w o rd s suddenly gain an unfamiliar ring and unfam iliar expression s evok e a feelin g o f déjà vul déjà entendu.
Carrolls interest in otherworldly speech acts, d iscu rsive m alfu nctions, and the physical experience of sounds probably arises fro m his ow n speech imped
iment. He suffered from a lifelong stam m er as w ell as d e afn e ss in the right ear, attributed to infantile fever. Some suggest that he sh ied aw ay fro m public oral presentations because o f his speech defect; others sp ecu late that he felt at ease only in conversation with child friends. H e recorded h is lin gu istic malfunction in the mock self-portrait of the D odo bird (because o f his stutter he could only pronounce his name as D o-D o-D odgson) (K elly 22). P u n n in g creates intimacy here and is grounded in insider knowledge accessible to the target audience - little Alice Liddell and others who could recall the vo ice o f the author. Hence, oral traits are integrated in the text, tongue in cheek. F u rth er language dis
turbances thematised in the Alice books include stam m erin g, aphasia, tip of the tongue experience, dysarthria (slurred o r un clear speech) - all perform ed by Alice. Hence, the flawed/erroneous language use o f ch ild ren becom es the narrative engine of nonsense literature as well as a g ro u n d o f philosophical speculation. It is tempting to interpret C a rro ll/D o -D o -D o d g so n as a creative stutterer in Gilles Deleuzes sense o f the term . H e w as “a fo re ig n e r to his own language,” who derived phonetic, lexical, and syn tactic creation s from speech defects, a writer who used stuttering “to stretch lan gu age alo n g abstract and infinitely varied lines,” to “ make [language) take flight ... an d sen d [it] racing, to ceaselessly [place] it in a state o f disequilibrium ” (D eleuze, Essays 109),
Carroll was very much preoccupied with the so u n d o f the articu lated verbal pronunciation. He owned a Voice Cultivation M ach in e (W o o lf 78) and attend
ed sessions with speech therapist James Hunt. Just h o w m uch C a rro ll w as aware of the art of elocution is attested by letters in his co rre sp o n d e n ce in w hich he shared the lessons learned from D r Hunt. W riting to E d ith Lu cy, w h o attended his logic classics at Oxford High School and played B ian c a in a theatrical per
formance, he observes:
the performance on the whole was very poor ... it w as sim ply and solely the fault of bad delivery... with one or perhaps two exceptions, you have all to learn the elements of stage elocution, such things as to pronounce
every letter, to m ake all the consonants audible, and those who lisp (and m ost people lisp a little) must give special sharpness and force to the Ss and above all never to go quicker than is consistent with perfect articulation.
(Carroll, D iaries 507)
H ow ever, C a r r o lls sim u ltan eous recognition o f the disciplinary and the ludic qualities o f lan g u age is p erfe ctly illustrated by how his own pedantic advice seems m o ck e d b y h ila rio u sly absurd lines in the Alice books. The Duchess’s lullaby, “ S p e a k ro u g h ly to y o u r little boy and beat him when he sneezes,” is one exam ple; A lice ’s fu ssin g about “ her voice sound(ing) hoarse and strange, and the w ords not co m (in g) the sam e as they used to do” is another (Carroll and G ardner 64, 2 3 ).
The ep iso d es in w h ich A lice m akes frustrated attempts to properly recall didactic verse she b elieves she should have m emorised during her elementary education are p a rtic u la rly interesting, because they shed light on the ambigu
ous in terp retive p o ssib ilities o f C a rro lls tale. This speech act puts her memo
ry on trial, as it w ere. It sh ow s w hether she has remained herself or changed into som eon e else. Jam es K in caid severely criticises this as a sign of the “failed fantasy” o f a d e e p ly d iscip lin ed “ false child” (95). However, it is important to note that in stead o f the m o ralisin g, sentim ental originals, only mock parodies com e to A lic e s lip s u n b id d en , in a nearly unconscious automatic manner. Her lapsus-like stu tterin g is rem in iscen t o f som niloquy. Throughout Alices misre- m em bering, the rh y m es “com e and grow b y themselves”4 The ones that she used to “ k n o w b y heart,” like all educated Victorian children, appear distorted.
H ence, the ve rses A lic e en acts un derline the elusiveness of the most fundamen
tal fo u n d atio n o f m e an in g . T h e y becom e nonsensical both for Victorians who are fam iliar w ith the o rig in a l rhym es, and thus recognise that Carroll is poking fun at the estab lish e d ch ild re n s literature o f his time, and for contemporary' readers w h o can revel in p o stm o d e rn textual pleasures of unrestrained, refer
entless, o r d e-re fere n tialise d signification.
Picturing Talking Hands and Silent Screams
The A lice b o o k ’s im a g e-te x tu a l dyn am ics challenged representational conven
tions b y fu sin g the p o e tic im a g e ry o f verbal language games with picture po
ems that tra n sfo rm e d text into im age, as w hen the mouses tale takes the form o f a m o u se s ta il,5 as w e ll as illustrations o f sounds and even sign language. In his stu d y o f Jo h n T e n n ie l’s illustrations for Carroll’s books, Michael Hancher explains h o w “ the u n u su a lly com plem entary relationship” of text and image ( 1 1 8 ) in the c a re fu lly crafted page layout plays with intermedial transitions.
This v a n g u a rd ist b o o k d e sig n introduced tactility into the registers of visual
and acoustic experience to engage and em pow er ch ild renders leafing through the book by turning transverha) com m unication into a vital stru cturin g device of the narrative.
As lennifer Ksmails book Reading Victorian Deafness: Signs am !Sounds in Vic
torian iiferufnrviwii( wlfim' (20 13) contends, lan gu age con stituted a focal point for debates about human uniqueness in the late n ineteenth cen tu ry (4). The lin
guistic capabilities of non-speaking hum ans (child ren and d e a f people), as well as those of talking animals, became a cultural co n cern b ecau se they challenged Victorian ideas o f human value and troubled the d e fin itio n o f the human as a speaking animal, 'lhe medico-pedagogical oralism m ovem en t forced deaf chil
dren to speak and lip-read instead o f using sign lan g u age, b ecau se the bodily gestures of sign language were regarded as an in fe rio r m o d e o f com m unication, available to animals too (14).
1 would like to suggest that the hands featured in Joh n T e n n ie ls illustrations to the Alice books enter into dialogue w ith the V icto ria n d ile m m a over the verbal versus the non-verbal divide. A lices hands in tru d e fro m an extradiegetic into the intradiegetic realm and introduce a m etaleptic d im en sio n to the text, as if the playing child brings the fictional un iverse in to b ein g through manual manoeuvres. But the dose-ups o f hands also em bed sign lan g u age w ithin non
sense, enhancing the corporeal register o f sign ification an d ch allen gin g the Vic
torian prioritisation of (disembodied) telling over (o v e re m b o d ie d ) showing.
The importance of hands in Tenniels illustrations is h ig h ligh ted by the fact that the most iconic characters o f the books - playin g card s an d chess figures - have hands, “despite their original anatom y” (W ong 13 8 ) . Tire D odo bird has both wings and hands: he stands for “ both/and” in stead o f “either/or.” In the tale he challenges everyone to a race where everyon e is a w in n e r and no one is a loser. In the Victorian imagination, he serves as a w a rn in g about the dangers of human intervention into natural matters (perhaps a w a rn in g against the oral
ism movement) and an object o f curiosity that in spired ta xid erm ists o f the time to create from various bird parts (geese, swans, and oth ers) the likeness o f this extinct species (these share an affinity with C a rro lls p o rtm an teau neologisms merging multiple word fragments to create the likeness o f lan gu age). It seems telling that Carrolls fictional self-portrait is a flightless, so n gless anachronistic creature reaching out his hands towards the child frie n d , y e a rn in g for tactile connection and to explore the physical dim ensions o f d isco u rse .
Mou-Lan Wong calls attention to how the p ictu rin g o f h an d movements in Tenniels illustrations conveys a sense o f orality. The M a d H atter is raising his hands in a singing pose while perform ing the “ Star,” the Q u een o f Hearts is pointing her fingers when she is scream ing orders fo r A lic e s b eheading, and the King is gesticulating vehemently when he is h avin g a lo u d argum ent with the executioner (138). The picture of A lices ow n giant h an d s in the miniature
John TcnnlH, "Alice's hand grabs ai Rabbit." Wood engraving, block cut by Dal/icl Brothers. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865),
W onderland scene illustrates a passage that abounds in noisy sound effects (im
age above). A u d ito ry stim uli are visually translated into sign language:
She fancied she heard the White Rabbit just under the window, she sudden
ly spread out her hand, and made a snatch in the air. She did not get hold o f anything, but she heard a little shriek and a fall, a clash of broken glass.
(Carroll and G ardner 42)
I agree w ith W ong that A lic e s hands in the Tenniel images also represent the hands o f the read er w h o is invited to enter into tactile interaction with the book-object, co u rtesy o f the creative book design that resulted from the au
thors and illustrator's sin gular collaboration. The reader’s physical participa
tion in vitalisin g the d yn am ic dialogue between text and image is necessary for the u n folding o f the plotline. It is the calculated corporeal involvement of the audience in the fo rm o f the read ers hands turning the pages that enacts Alices m ovem ent to the oth er side o f the looking-glass and the Cheshire Cat’s van
ishing. V ia typ o g rap h ical play, the text is disrupted mid-sentence on one page and con tinu ed on the next one: “ In another moment Alice was through ... the glass” (C arro ll an d G a rd n e r 14 8 - 14 9 ) . The illustration is doubled and reversed on the tw o sid es o f the sam e sheet, so that the book page itself can miraculous
ly tran sform in to a m irror. A s the reader leafing through the book assists in a
simple optical illusion, the Cat is m ade to d isap p e a r w ith o n ly its g rin rem ain
ing behind, whereas Alice contem plating the C a t b e c o m e s lo st a m id st the text,
“overwritten by words'* (Wong 146), engulfed b y the g rin (C a rr o ll an d Gardner 67,69). In The Nursery Alice, Carroll invites read ers to tra n s fo rm th e ir b o o k into a plaything by urging them to shake it to see h o w th e W h ite R ab b it trembles with fear and to fold the page to see how b rave little A lic e is w h e n she faces the mouth of the vanishing cat closing up on w ord s.
In other books, the illustrations’ silent p ic tu rin g o f lo u d n o ises is an exciting counter-narrative addendum to the acoustic text. T h e g a p in g m o u th o f the hor
rendous jabberwock in Tenniels draw ing offers an o d d v is u a l representation of a silent scream, a voiceless cry that opens up tra n sm e d ia l, a u d io v isu a l inter
pretive dimensions. The picture o f the frail ch ild lik e k n ig h t re a d y to slay the monster with the sword can be understood as s y m b o lis in g A lic e , the implied reader-interpreter, as she struggles w ith the textu al m o n stro sity . Tire im possi
ble challenge of making sense o f nonsense is e p ito m ise d b y th e Jabberw ock, a mythical beast Alice encounters in the fo rm o f a m ir ro r-w ritte n picturepo- em she immediately tries to decode on crossin g th ro u g h th e lo o k in g -g lass. As Sundmark points out, Alice repeatedly attem pts to tra n sla te th e “ Jab b erw o ck y”
poem, which, unusually, is a wTitten text am id st a p le th o ra o f o ra lly presented rhymes and songs. First, she converts the reversed sig n sy ste m (im age) into a readable version (text). Then, she recodes the w ritten text b y m e m o risin g it. She shifts her mental image-text o f the poem into the oral m e d iu m . S h e has Hump- ty Dumpty recode the text into the “m o ck-p h ilological re g is te r” a n d , finally, she invites readers’ (re)interpretations o f these “textu ally re p re se n te d tran sactions”
that inspire all "to read imaginatively!” (S u n d m ark 18 2 ) .
The picture o f Alice facing the Jabberw ock m ig h t d e p ic t n ot o n ly the read
er-interpreters struggle to make sense o f non sen se on th e se m a n tic and syntac
tic levels,6 but also the speakers phonological fight fo r c o rre c t a rticu latio n : to make words sound right. The failure to speak p ro p e rly is a r e c u rr in g frustration for Alice throughout her dream adventures’ ‘ co n v e rsa tio n a l co m b a ts” and a foundational experience for newcomers to (both sp oken a n d w ritte n ) language, children learning to speak or read, “apprentice, dilettan te sp e a k e rs, am ateurs of the sentence” (Phillips 15 ) who transition slow ly fro m in a rtic u la te babble to articulate language, from deformed sign to legible w ord.
The metanarrative and metapictorial m eanings o f “ Ja b b e r w o c k y ” gain fu r
ther exciting implications if we consider how the g ap in g m o u th that rem ains silent stages Carrolls owm speech defect. His h esitation w as d e s c rib e d by child friend May Barber as “rather terrifying,” “ it w asn’t e x a c tly a sta m m er, because there uras no noise, he just opened his m outh. But th ere w as a w a it, a v e ry ner
vous wait from everybody’s point o f view : it w as v e r y c u r io u s ” (S m ith 172 ).
Carroll, in his correspondence with speech th erapist W illia m H . R. Rivers,
referred to his stru ggles w ith correct pronunciation with military metaphors:
“Thanks for ad v ice ab out hard ‘C,’ w hich I acknowledge as my vanquisher in singlehand com b at, at p resen t” (17 8 ) . Apparently, stammering was a monstros
ity to be overcom e. It w as stigm atised in the Victorian era and associated with vices such as effem in acy, m asturb ation, indolence, vanity, and misanthropy (Foulkes 18 ; L an e 2 0 ).7 Th e kn ight struggling with the Jabberwock-symbolis- ing-language is an alter ego o f A lice, w ho can also be regarded as yet another fictional self-p o rtrait o f C arro ll (see R obson 139 ). Nonsense literature, infan
tile echolalia (rep etition o f speech), the Jabberw ocks howl, like stammering, all produce soun ds d evo id o f m ean in g - hence they simultaneously frighten and fascinate the creative artist and are rem iniscent o f child language-users’ vulner
ability and reb elliousness.
Talking With/Like Animals
The Jab b erw ock is also a h yb rid creature, m ingling the bestial and the human.
As a ch im eric co m p o site o f different actual and mythical animal species - in
sects, rodents, serp en ts, d ragon s, and dinosaurs - this creature is a perfect visual equivalent o f the C arroIIian portm anteau language game o f squeezing multiple w o rd s to fo rm neologism s. A s a representation o f the struggle with language, the Ja b b e rw o ck challen ges A lice s (and by extension the readers’) hu
m anistic b e lie f in h er ow n su p e rio rity by challenging her capacity to speak cor
rectly. H ow ever, the Ja b b e rw o ck is also part o f the CarroIIian bestiary of talking animals w ho fu lfil an egalitarian agenda by lending a voice to the socially *oth- ered” w ho have been d e p rive d o f autonom y. As a female child often mistaken in W onderland fo r a b east, A lic e is a m ultiply m arginalised figure who balances on the borders o f in telligib ility and talks with/like anim als to rebelliously reclaim her acoustic agency.
The A lice b o o k s offer a tw isted take on the talking animal story." Instead of simply m o ralisin g on h u m an shortcom ings, they reflect on the era’s scientific views: D a rw in s e v o lu tio n a ry theory, w hich argues for the kinship of animals and hum ans and in p a rticu la r n on -speakin g children. Darwin’s Vie Expression o f Emotions in M en a n d A nim als (18 7 2 ) hints at the kinship o f the pre-linguistic baby babbles an d in articu late an im al cries and seems to regard infants as The m issing lin k” b etw een h u m an and anim al: m ore primitive, more poetic, and more natural than M an ( 1 8 , 9 1 - 9 3 ,2 1 2 ) * In a m ocking response to these ideas, the anim als in the A lice b o o k s are anthropom orphised by being both gifted and burdened w ith lan gu age, w h ile the hum an child undergoes the aninulis- ing tran sform ations o f th eriom orp h isation and struggles with running out of words. A lice, w ith h er elon gated neck, is seen as a snake by the pigeon, a baby transform s into a p ig b y b ein g called one, and the Caterpillar and the Fawn
increase Alices identity crisis by silencing her with th eir q u e stio n in g “ W ho she is?” "What she is?” and *What she calls herself?*
Language spoken (mispronounced and m isinterpreted) b y h um an s and an
imals alike plays a prominent role in transm itting a "p o sth u m au isl message”.
'Ihis exposes, undermines, and ironically re-establishes b o u n d arie s between the human and non-human, to "facilitate a dialogue as to h o w those borders might become more fluid,” as Zoc laqucs puts it (3), C a rro ll, as a defender of animal rights (see "Vivisection'), conceives o f in terspecies differences in a non-binary model. He describes Alice with positive an im al attributes, "loving as a dog” and "gentle as a fawn* ("Alice on the Stage” 2 2 5 ), and explains how the little girl's imaginative pretence troubles the a d u lt-c h ild , h um an -an im al hierarchy by embracing wild animality via perform ative speech acts such as
"Nurse! Do lets pretend that I'm a hungry hyena, and y o u ’re a h o n e!” (Carroll and Gardner 147). On the other hand, the “ talking fo od ” creatures, such as the
“communicative soup recipe” o f the M ock Turtle Soup, urge readers to think of animals as more than just things to be consum ed. T h ey serve to “displace the naturalised assumption of [the speaking/m eat-eating] h u m an ’s d om in ion over the [silent/edible] animal” (jaques 50).
In a telling episode, the Mock Turtle m entions w h itin g to A lice an d she first associates the fish with the dish she eats for dinner, but cuts sh ort h er response when she remembers that the whiting was the snail’s d ance p artn e r in the Lob
ster Quadrille, In other words, she hastily adopts the an im al perspective by recognising the whiting as an autonomous, sentient, cogn isan t citizen o f the wondrous realm she attempts to accomm odate to th rou gh ou t h er b rie f visit.
Alices self-correction results in a mishearing that am uses readers an d paves the way for a rapid evolution o f the whiting from food object to auton om ous real person to fictitious textual creature mobilised b y w ordplay:
“Yes,” said Alice, T v e often seen them [whiting] at d in - ” she checked her
self hastily. “I don’t know where Dinn may be,” said the M o ck Turtle, “ but if you’ve seen them so often, o f course you know what they’re like.” (Carroll and Gardner 107)
Throughout her Wonderland adventures A lice tries h er b est to talk with/like animals. Her addressing the mouse in the only French sentence she know s “Ou est ma chatte?” can be interpreted as a benevolent attem pt at ap p roach in g the foreignness of the other as well as an ironic com m en tary o n the failure o f lan
guage. Then, her pondering about “the right w ay o f sp eak in g to a m ouse” (26), her willingness to change the subject so as not to h urt the ro d e n ts feelings, her apologising, and her soothing o f her interlocutor all u n d erlin e h o w this inter
species verbal exchange proves to be a lesson in so lid arity fo r the little hum an.
98 ANNA KÉRCHY
Ironically, A lice en joys the most intense moment of tender companionship with nn anim al in a tran sverbal episode o f Looking-Glass when she meets the Pawn in the “ W oods W here 'filin gs I lave No Names" In this fabulous place all beings can app aren tly escape the violence involved in language. A non-discur- sive, nonsensical classification grounded in empathic interspecies interrelation- alily allow s A lice to em brace the Pawn, as the child can be “grouped with other organism s ‘like any other natural species’" (Dusinberre 7), hinting at humani
ty’s new, p o st-D arw in ian position as m erely that o f a “nameless" clever animal (Lovell-Sm ith 39). This scene also crystallises the "innate connection" the Vic
torian im agination traces betw een child and animal as similarly subordinated and silenced, relentlessly rebellious, and resilient beings. As a female child, Al
ice is aligned with un kn ow ab le N ature, but she also stands for a “querulous hu
man observation o f nature as m ysteriously other" (Lovell-Smith 47). Hence she is just as am bigu ous a figure as the talking anim al creatures she converses with.
M ost im portantly, in the A lice books “child and animal overlap, address, and reflect one another," “each subjected to an awkward dialogue as to what is real’ and w hat is ‘represen ted’” (Jaques 13 ) . They both refuse to be talked down to and dare to sp eak up. The m ain political message o f literary nonsense argues for the equality o f all livin g things grounded in the right to name oneself and respond, and the re sp o n sib ility to hear the others who have been deprived of a voice and agency, and - as the Faw n-m eets-A lice episode shows us - even the pleasure o f sh arin g silences.
Fictionalising in terspecies com m unication, like picturing sounds and boosting readers’ in teractive acoustic agency, belongs to the rich catalogue of Lewis C arro ll’s sub versive narratolo gical strategies that disclose and destabilise discourses o f oppression . These intricately interconnected verbal/visual ma
noeuvres have am used, liberated, and em pow ered young audiences by defying representational con ven tion s and dism issing didactic agendas and rhetorical protocols. The m essage o f W onderland is encapsulated in the Gryphons call:
“that’s enough about lessons. Tell h er som ething about the games now” (86). By endowing the ch ild w ith a un iqu e, distinctive voice o f its own, the right both to speak up and to be listen ed to, and playfu lly disrupting adult logic, language, and authority, the lu d ic p olitics o f C arroliian nonsense contributed to both the liberation and the co m in g o f age o f children’s literature.10
Notes
1. 1 use the terms “A lice books” or “Alice tales” to refer to Alices Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and its sequel Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There (1871).
2. Sometimes they are grouped together in one single paragraph, as in this pas-
sage in Wonderland: “Now look at the picture, and yo u ’ll soon guess what
happened
next. It looks just like the sea, doesn’t it? But it really is the Pool o f Tears - all
made
of Alices tears, you know !... Suppose you were sw im m in g about in a Pool
of
Tears ... wouldn't you swim as hard as you could go?” ( 11-12 ).3. Language philosopher J.L. Austins speech act theory that highlights the per
formative power of language is outlined in his How to Do Things with Words and could be extended into transvcrbal, acoustic realm s o f language use.
4. This is an expression Carroll uses in 1886 to com m ent retrospectively on his way of composing the Alice tales.
5. The typographic play used to reflect the subject o f the text in the Mouses Tale/
Tail is exploited half a century later in the visual poetry o f G uillaum e Apollinaires Calligranuncs and early 20°’ century Dadaist and Futurist experim ents.
6. Henry Kuttner s short story “Mimsy were the Borogoves” postulates that the language of “Jabberwocky” can only be understood by children whose minds have not been yet structured according to Euclidean logic.
7. C.P. Bronsons 1855 study Stammering: Its Causes, Effects, Remedies tied speech disorders to a host of “analogous nervous diseases” including “ hysteria, insanity from despondency, peculiar weaknesses o f males and fem ales, m isanthropy”, and moral delinquency (Lane 20). Anne Stiles’s Popular Fiction and Brain Science in the late 19th Century suggests that many late-Victorian alienists and criminologists viewed stuttering as a symptom of degeneracy (131).
8. The most prominent master of the animal fable, Aesop, w as also a stutterer.
9. According to Marjorie Lorch and Paula Hellal, D arw in s thoughts on early language acquisition associated with the communication o f anim als were influenced by the work of Hyppolite Taine, who “compared his daughter’s developing language skills to the communicative ability o f birds and ‘prim itive’ peoples’ themes that echo those found in Rousseau” (141). Similarly, Darwin’s observations o f the orangutans in London Zoo generated a list of questions about the b ody language o f babies (143), while his Descent of Man contended that dogs “are at the sam e stage o f development as infants between the ages of 10 and 12 months who understand m any words and short sentences but cannot yet utter a single word” (144).
10. 1 wish to thank IRSCL for the travel grant that allowed m e to participate in the 2019 IRSCL Congress in Stockholm, where I presented an earlier version of this chapter.
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