Eötvös Loránd University Faculty of Education and Psychology PhD School of Education
Teaching-Learning Programme
SUMMARY OF (PhD) DISSERTATION
Julianna Mária Dettai
Motivation Issues in Italian Language Teaching in Hungarian Institutions of Higher Education
Supervisor:
Prof. Iván Falus, DSc
2019
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1. The research problem and definition of the research goal
1.1. The research problem
In both European and Hungarian language education, and in motivation studies in connection with language teaching, research has concentrated on the English and to some extent on the German languages (Csizér and Dörnyei, 2002; Csizér, Dörnyei and Németh, 2004), whilst other languages are downplayed (Petneki, 2009; Nikolov, 2011). The choice of languages in schools is also practically restricted to English and German (Imre, 2000;
Nikolov 2011). The perceptible successes of multilingual societies in the modern world economy, the role played by multiculturalism in the diversity of society and in raising the tolerance level and creativity, as well as respect for national cultures, justify the idea that the thinking and value system of our society should not be determined merely by one or two global languages and cultures.
In earlier studies, commitment to learning the Italian language was chiefly examined in students training to be teachers of the Italian language and literature (Cannova and Mondavio, 2004; Hornyák, 2006). However, we are not aware of any extensive research, involving the whole of Hungarian higher education, which deals with the motivations for choosing Italian as a foreign language, as does the subject of this thesis.
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1.2. Framing the goals of the research
The goal is a nationwide study in Hungarian higher education to explore the motivations for choosing and learning Italian as a foreign language.
The problems for our research may by grouped into two main categories:
– which motives affect the choice of Italian as a foreign language to be learnt in Hungarian higher education;
– what factors influence the efficacy of Italian language learning.
As does the study itself, the literature related to our empirical research touches on the problematics of the correlation between the language and the culture, the sympathy and antipathy between the cultures, the emotional factors in language selection/language learning, the motivation for learning (with particular regard to the motivation for learning a foreign language, focusing on the reasons connected with choosing and learning Italian as a foreign language), as well as the subjective and objective factors influencing the efficacy of language learning, in addition to the issues of language learning situations and the language teacher’s competence.
On account of international integration, the expansion of the world economy, the flow of information and technology in the 21st century, the value of having language skills has increased, but surveys prove that the knowledge of foreign languages by the Hungarian population falls far behind the European Union average, and reproduction of the inequality observable in modern societies also comes about in the area of language learning (Andor, 2000). The opinions of researchers are divided in this
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regard, whether the deficient language skills are due to the low number of lessons dedicated to language teaching, or to less effective methods of language teaching (Nikolov, 2015; Bárdos, 2003).
It also comes to light from the literature, that the majority of Hungarian studies dealing with foreign language teaching, as with the choice of language in school, are restricted in practice to the two most popular languages in Europe, English and German (Petneki, 2009), the number of studies in connection with teaching and learning the Italian language is minimal. The success of the major world languages in language learning is easily understood, after all, several of these are key languages in business life, science and culture, as well as being communication tools on various continents. English is the state language in 50 countries of the world and an official language in a further 19 states, French is the state language in 28 countries and an official language in 20 states, Spanish is the state language in 20 countries.
It is an interesting phenomenon, however, that whilst the Italian language cannot boast of practical virtues, and Italian is a state language in a total of one country, even so, according to surveys of foreign languages to be learnt, in popularity and demand it is in the fourth or fifth place in the world of foreign languages chosen for learning (Sassi, 2002; Gasperetti, 2014).
This fact, as also indicated by earlier studies, points to affective motives, to sympathy for the Italian language and culture in our country too (Válóczi, 2002; Dettai, 2008).
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We can gather from the literature, that research on learning theories and motivation for learning has advanced in recent decades from the one- dimensional model to the multidisciplinary approach. Early studies highlighted single aspects of motivation correlations
(Hull, 1943; Watson, 1924), later studies attributed ever greater significance to affective factors in the motivation for choosing and learning a foreign language, to sympathy or antipathy towards the people and culture of the language to be learnt (Schumann, 1978).
For decades, theories studying the efficacy of second-language learning were determined by Gardner and Lambert’s socio-psychological paradigm based on the bipolarity of integrative-instrumental motivation. From the
’80s, however, there was an increase in critiques of the Gardner model, at the challenge of the economic-social-technological advances of our age, learning theories have moved in the direction of synthetism, attempting to incorporate the results of various studies. Researchers attribute an ever more significant role to emotional factors (Krashen, 1985; Schumann, 1978, 1986), to motivation, to success and failure which aid or hinder performance, to anxiety and inhibition (Horwitz and Cope, 1986).
Studies on motivation today in modern theories are characterised by multidisciplinarity, analysis of the correlations between cognition and affectivity, also taking into account the ethical results of the most important disciplines so far, biology, physiology, psychology, pedagogy and sociology. Hungarian studies too, particularly those led by Zoltán Dörnyei, have achieved significant results in the field of research into the motivation
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for foreign language learning (Csizér and Dörnyei, 2002). White has likewise had a fruitful influence on Hungarian studies with his mastery motivation theory (Józsa, 2002), as has research related to goal orientation theory (Fejes, 2011).
The paradigm shift which took place in the 20th century fundamentally changed the function of the educator; in the constantly changing knowledge-based society, self-regulated learning is playing an every greater role, which trains problem-solving, positive-thinking autonomous adults with the professional help of autonomous educators (D. Molnár, 2014), and all this is true of foreign language learning too.
With the entry of generations Y and Z into higher education, the use of modern infotech devices has acquired especial significance (Tóth-Mózer, 2013).
Based on the literature studied, we will also follow the multidisciplinary approach in our research; we examine the motivations for choosing and learning the Italian language in broader correlations, taking several factors into account (affectivity, attitude, language learning strategies, the learner’s personality traits, classroom work, devices, etc.). We thus wish to check and expand, and in some fields clarify, the claims of the literature with our empirical study.
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2. Hypotheses of the research
The numbers of the questions in the questionnaire are in brackets next to the hypotheses drafted below, we obtained the results by examining these.
2.1. Motives influencing the choice of the Italian language
2.1.1. The choice of the Italian language is based on sympathy felt for the culture of Italy (outlook on life, geographical features, art, people, etc.) (20, 21, 23, 24, 38).
2.1.2. Integrative motivation will go hand in hand with instrumental motivation (20, 25, 26, 27).
2.1.3. Girls have a stronger preference for choosing the Italian language (2).
2.1.4. Students do not choose Italian as a first foreign language for the most part (14).
2.1.5. Motivations may be shaped and formed during the process of language learning (18, 19, 28, 36, 37, 38).
2.1.6. A connection can be demonstrated between the choice of the Italian language and the personality of the language chooser. Those choosing the Italian language may be typically extroverted, open and friendly (19, 39).
2.1.7. A connection can be demonstrated between the motivation value choice related to the student’s lifestyle (intrinsic-extrinsic), as well as the endurance of the motivation, and the efficacy of learning (31, 40).
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2.2. Factors influencing the efficacy of learning Italian:
2.2.1. The number of language lessons, work done independently at home, textbooks, tourism, as well as other aids (internet, smartphones, social software, Italian friends, films, music, etc.) strongly influence Italian language achievements (7, 28, 29–30, 31, 32).
2.2.2. Assessment of the key role of the teacher in Italian language education may be assumed (33, 38).
2.2.3. A correlation can be demonstrated between those who choose the Italian language and study effectively, and the education level and language skills of the parents (15, 16, 17, 31, 32).
2.2.4. Within the context of differing qualifications, the motivations of Italian learners appear and affect efficiency in differing measures and weights (6–31).
2.2.5. Of the four basic foreign language skills, speaking and listening caused the most problems in the process of Italian language learning (31).
2.2.6. The use of telecommunication devices and interfaces was incorporated into language teaching/language learning, which made mastery more effective (34–35).
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3. Research strategy, methods
3.1. Sampling procedure
We targeted a study of the whole population, we did not attempt to sample within this. Our population was made up of university and college students learning Italian who are not majoring in Italian, where they are studying Italian as a foreign language as full-time students.
3.2. Quantitative methods
As we were targeting questioning the whole population, because of the numbers, we considered one of the most widespread methods of pedagogic research, namely survey with a questionnaire to be the most suitable as a research method of description and identifying correlations, more specifically a self-completed written questionnaire (Horváth, 2004; Falus, 2004) so this is what we used. We strove for a high response ratio, so in order to obtain this we used a paper-based questionnaire in the survey, with personal delivery and collection, thus making the work easier for the teachers who support completing the questionnaire, as well as the students.
3.3. The structure and three tools of the questionnaire
The questionnaire comprises a total of 40 questions, and three measuring tools:
3.3.1. The first tool consists of 38 questions, a series we have developed ourselves for the purpose of examining the initial and sustainable motivation for language learning, in which there are background, supplementary, single-choice, multiple-choice, quantity and scale based questions, as well as an open ended question (Falus and Ollé, 2008).
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3.3.2. As in our research we are examining the correlations between the Italian language chosen for learning purposes and the learner’s personality type, the second tool is 39 questions, a short Big Five personality test made up of 44 items (O. P. John, 1991), which lists personality traits after factor analytical arrangement into five factor groups: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness (Carver, 2006). Originally comprising 132 items, the test was developed by Italian psychologist Gian Vittorio Caprara and his co-workers (Caprara, Barbaranelli, Borgogni and Perugini, 1993). The Hungarian version of the tool has also been tested for reliability and validity (Rózsa et al., 2006).
3.3.3. In order to explore the possible correlations between the intrinsic/extrinsic factors in connection with Italian language learning, as well as the general lifestyle of our population (by means of intrinsic/extrinsic motivation values), we used the third tool, 40 questions, a shortened, 14 item version of the Aspiration Index. “The tool serving to assess general, long-term goals, maps out the intrinsic (development, relationships, community commitment) and extrinsic (wealth, fame and appearance) motivations, as well as those associated with health” (Martos, Szabó and Rózsa, 2006. p. 171).
The authors checked the reliability and validity of the shortened, 14 item questionnaire.
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4. Conducting the empirical test
The study was prepared using the following steps:
As a first step, following 2-3 weeks of preliminary discussions with the Education Authority, in the April of 2016 we signed an order entitled
“request for data”. Thus for a fee we received statistical data with respect to the autumn semester of the academic year 2015/2016 on the numbers of learners and teachers of Italian as a foreign language. According to information from the Education Authority, these data are based on individual data provision by the institutions.
As a second step, in the April of 2016 we defined our population. The result: 21 institutions of higher education, 1037 students, 91 Italian language teachers.
As the next step, between May and June 2016, with the aid of institution or faculty level “contact persons”, on the basis of the Neptun and ETR systems, we mapped the then current numbers. On this basis, the real result: 18 institutes of higher education, 770 students, 32 Italian language teachers. The discrepancies arose for various reasons: between the spring semester and the autumn semester, for instance, an educational unit previously teaching 70 students in Apor Vilmos Catholic College was terminated, and in the Budapest Business School the number of students fell to almost one third from one year to the next.
Of the remaining total student headcount of 570, 553 students completed the questionnaire. Thus the proportion of respondents was more than 90%.
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5. Results
5. 1. The analysis of the data received was carried out with SPSS 24.0 software, the following tests were applied.
Descriptive statistics, for presentation of the basic properties of the sample (frequency), chi-squared test (1.1), Wilcoxon test (1.1, 1.6), factor analysis (1.2), hierarchical cluster analysis (1.5), Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (1.1;
1.3; 1.6).
Parametric tests: two independent samples t-tests (certain parts of 1.6), paired sample t-test, ANOVA (1.7, 2.4).
In those cases where the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test rejected normality, the non-parametric procedures were applied:
Non-parametric tests: two independent samples Mann-Whitney tests (1.1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 2.1, 2.2), paired sample Wilcoxon test (1.5, 2.5), Kruskal–
Wallis test (1.7).
We considered those results to be significant, where the results of the tests were below the significant value of 0.05
5.2. The results of the first problematic area of our study – in Hungarian higher education, what motives affect the choice of the Italian language as a foreign language to be learnt.
Our research confirms that the choice of language can be traced chiefly to an emotional factor, to sympathy for the Italian language and culture. The decisive majority of the students are learning Italian, because they think:
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with languages their cultural horizon is also broadened, when visiting Italy they would like to speak to the people there in their own language, or they like the tunefulness of the Italian language. But practical criteria also show up, such as they will need the Italian language for their job or their degree, but less so because of interest in Italian art, entertainment industry, design, fashion or sport. The overwhelming majority of the students learning the Italian language are sympathetic towards the Italians, their sympathy springing primarily from their liking for the Italian language. It is interesting that their sympathy cannot necessarily be linked with personal experience, in fact, those who have never been to Italy have a somewhat better opinion of the Italians than those who have.
Our hypothesis, that integrative motivation goes hand in hand with instrumental motivation (20, 25, 26, 27), could be neither confirmed nor refuted on the basis of the data received.
We consider our hypothesis, that girls have a stronger preference for choosing the Italian language (2, 24), to be confirmed.
We consider our hypothesis, that students do not choose Italian as a first foreign language for the most part (14), to be confirmed.
In connection with our hypothesis that motivations may be shaped and formed during the process of language learning, following the complex investigation we may state: dividing the students into two categories based on language level, beginners and advanced learners cannot be regarded as different in terms of initial inclination to study. Later, however, the inclination to study changed, the drive being higher in the beginners’
group. In terms of efficacy they cannot be regarded as different, but the
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commitment felt towards the language is not the same: learning the Italian language was more important for the advanced students.
We consider our hypothesis that a connection can be demonstrated between the choice of the Italian language and the personality of the language choosers, or that those choosing the Italian language may be typically extroverted, open and friendly (19,39), to be confirmed in part. The difference between those who chose the Italian language themselves and those who did so under external influence is only significant in the area of
“openness”. The results of the Big Five (question 39) personality test extrapolated to the whole population were as follows: with the aid of the one-sample Wilcoxon test our assumption was verified statistically that our population is typically extroverted, friendly, conscientious, emotionally stable and open. The highest value in the Big Five personality test was found for the students’ “openness”, which more subtly means teachableness, receptivity to novelty, a measure of tolerance towards differing values, openness to a different culture and experiences. In terms of choice (questions 20, 21), the openness typical of the students also finished in a distinguished position, in first place with 90%. In the area of openness, a significant difference was observed between the openness of those choosing the Italian language themselves and those doing so under external influence (p = 0.039). We also tested whether the students of law and the arts differed statistically in terms of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness. The t-test significance value is 0.003, which means that the average of the two groups is different. The students of law and art differ statistically in terms of neuroticism, the art students being more neurotic. The t-test signficance value is 0.031, which
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means that the average of the two groups is different. The students of law and art differ statistically in terms of openness, in favour of the art students, who are more open.
From the hypothesis in connection with factors influencing the inclination to study and with learning tools, it turned out that cluster 1 elements (paper-based dictionary, radio, online games, Quizlet, newspapers, Duolingo, friends) and tool group 2 (film and music) can be said to have a positive influence on maintaining the inclination to study. With tool group 3 (internet, electronic dictionary and books) this connection is not clear.
Students using tool group 3 did report a somewhat better inclination to study, but the hypothesis investigation could not confirm that the difference is significant.
More than two thirds of the students have “their own perseverance” or the
“language teacher’s positive influence” to thank for their inclination to study (18, 19, 28, 36, 37, 38).
5.3. In the second problematic area of our study – what factors influence the efficacy of Italian language learning – we obtained the following results.
Our hypothesis was that a connection can be demonstrated between motivation value choice (intrinsic/extrinsic) related to the students’
lifestyle and the persistence of motivation and efficacy of learning (31, 40).
The higher values of the aspiration index indicated that intrinsic motivation was more typical of the tested students; based on the data obtained, there is
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no significant difference between the groups of differing efficiency (p = 0.469). We rejected this hypothesis.
We checked whether a correlation can be demonstrated with regard to the students whose internal stimulating force is higher in the extrinsic-intrinsic motivation values in their general lifestyle, if they also motivate themselves better in the area of study, and whether all this would show a higher value in the area of efficacy too. As the significance value is 0.469, we can say that there is no significant difference between the groups of differing efficacy.
The hypothesis that the assessment of the key role of the teacher in Italian language teaching may be assumed (33, 38) may be regarded as confirmed (p = 0.000): there is close correlation between the importance of the Italian teacher and the positive effect the Italian teacher has on persistence.
As it could not be proven statistically, we rejected our hypothesis that a correlation can be demonstrated between those choosing and efficiently learning the Italian language, and the parents’ qualifications and language skills (15, 16, 17, 31, 32).
We may regard our hypothesis as justified, that within the context of differing qualifications, the motivations of Italian learners appear and affect efficiency in differing measures and weights (6, 18, 27). The difference was significant chiefly between students choosing economic and socioscientific (tourism) professions.
We may regard our hypothesis as justified, that of the four basic foreign language skills, speaking and listening caused the most problems in the
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process of Italian language learning (34, 35). The “Italian conversation”
variable was given 90% by the students, this is the most important for Italian language learners. To the question as to which activity they would like to be given more time in lessons, “Italian conversation” was given the highest value once again (53, 1%).
Examining the correlation between the frequency of various lesson activities happening in the lessons and the efficacy, the result obtained was 0.08, which value is not significantly different from 0 (p = 0.068), or the two variables are practically independent of each other.
We cannot verify our hypothesis that the use of telecommunication devices and interfaces was incorporated into language teaching/language learning, which made mastery more effective, so we may reject it.
6. Conclusions
Although Italian as a foreign language does not have such practical virtues as English, German or Spanish, it’s popularity is still outstanding worldwide. Observations over the past 1-2 years, however, have proven that choice of the Italian language in Hungarian institutions of higher education is showing a downward trend, and there are some institutions where it is no longer available.
The reason for this is, on the one hand that the place of the Italian language has been taken over by foreign languages which are more useful in the world economy, besides English and German, such as Spanish, Russian and Arabic, and more recently by the languages of the emerging Far
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Eastern economies: Japanese and Chinese, and the popularisation of certain languages (e.g. Japanese) is supported by study grants.
With the everyday use of modern infotech devices, the generations born after the ’90s, known as “Y” and “Z” have a changed way of relating to stimulus processing, emotion and time management, language use, they have a different attitude to knowledge and authority, and find it difficult to tolerate frontal work. In contrast to this, as it becomes clear from our study, frontal instruction is still determinative in language education, the majority of teachers do not use most of the modern technical devices. These data should therefore make us think, because as it turns out from our research, the students were the least satisfied with understanding spoken text and with their speaking skills, but technical devices (film, video, smart apps, etc.) could provide help in this area.
We judge the development of a more practical, closer to reality, more situative, communicative, interactive, creative language education approach to be of outstanding importance in the area of basic language skills.
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7. Suggestions for continuing studies
We consider it worthwhile to examine the phenomenon, that whilst the average inclination to study of students using modern devices was significantly greater than that of those students who do not use these devices, the majority of students still called for traditional methods.
We likewise consider it worthwhile to examine the effectiveness of textbooks. Three quarters of the subjects of our study are learning from monolingual textbooks, whilst more than half of the students indicated that they would prefer a bilingual textbook.
Due also to the predominant uncertainty in the literature, we would consider a study to be useful, which would examine the relationship between the number of language lessons and the teacher’s work from the point of view of efficacy.
We consider a comparison between the educational level of the students and their parents, as well as the data on their language skills, the results emerging from this from a sociological angle, to be speech data and worthwhile studying.
In a constantly changing, knowledge-based society, self-regulated learning is playing an ever greater role even in the area of foreign language teaching/learning. We consider further research on this to be a fundamentally important field of study.
Besides the understandable incursion of the English and German languages, we consider it worthwhile exploring those tools which would motivate the choice of so-called “minor languages” such as Italian.
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It would be instructive to compare in a study the research results on the Italian language with the results of studies dealing with learning and teaching the English and German languages.
In a globalising world burdened with migration conflicts, a study of the dynamics between languages and cultures can appear particularly exciting, as well as the chances of resolving prejudices, to be attempted by means of teaching foreign languages and cultures.
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