A Activity, 354
Activity coefficient ratio, 363
Activity coefficients, see also Distribution co
efficients; Hyperfiltration in aqueous solutions, 362, 366, 368 in membranes, 362, 366
in water-organic solvent mixtures, 396 Amide-water mixtures, 401
Amortization procedure, 27 Anhydrite, see Calcium sulfate Anion exchange, see Ion exchange
Anion permeable membranes, see Mem
branes, ion exchange Arid zones, water problem, 3 Availability, 44, 52, 64 Available energy, 44, 63
´ Blasius equation, 412
Blending, desalted and raw water, 520 Boiler condensate
filtration of, 460
ion-exchange treatment of, 461, 467 Boilers
condensate, 454
feed water, table of specifications, 453 Boiling point elevation, 88
Boundary layer, see Concentration polariza
tion
"Break-even" cost at zone boundaries, 26 Brine, 78
Butane, 311
C
Calcium carbonate, solubility of, as function of p H , 500
Calcium sulfate
different crystal forms, 502
solubility of, in sea water concentrates, 502, 503, 504
transitions between different forms, 504 Carnot principle, 56
Cation exchange, see Ion exchange Cation-permeable membranes, see Mem
branes, ion exchange Cell exergy, 68
Cellulose acetate membranes acetylation, 386
casting solutions, 384, 388 preparation of, 384 salt rejection, 389, 390 stability of, 389 structure of, 386
transport properties of, 389 Chemical potential, 47, 51, 216
Chemical potential difference, as driving force in hyperfiltration, see Hyperfiltration, driving force
Chemicals, for water treatment, see Water treatment, chemicals for
Chilton-Colburn analogy, in hyperfiltration, 411
Chlorination, 445, 476 Coagulation, 445, 476 Co-ion exclusion
membranes, 363, 397
porous ion exchange bodies, 364, 366 Colt process, see Freezing processes, direct Combination plants, 17
solar power and stills, 193, 195
thermodynamic comparison with plants for distillation only, 83
Compression distillation, see Vapor compres
sion distillation
Concentration polarization, hyperfiltration, 40J
entrance region, 406 laminar flow, 403 nomogram for, 414 turbulent flow, 410, 414 unstirred systems, 355
5
558
S U B J E C T I N D E X
559
Concentration potential, 220, 221, 238 Concrete construction, for vapor reheat stills,
146
Condensate, filtration of, 447 Conductance
electrolytic, 12 equivalent, 268 heat exchangers, 148 thermal, 35, 41, 43 Conductivity, 218 Conveyance of water
cost of, 537, 540
effect of electric power costs, 539 of hydraulic gradient, 542 in horizontal pipe lines, 540 in inclined pipe lines, 543 static lift, cost of, 541 Corrosion
boilers, 452
influence on scale formation, 511 power plants, 466
Cost accounting equations, 31 Cost balances, 25
Cost components of conventional water sup
ply, see names of components, e.g., conveyance of water, cost of
"Cost vector," 31
Coulomb efficiency, see Faraday efficiency Coupled transport processes, 215, 373 Coupling of fluxes, hyperfiltration, 376 Critical velocity, in electrodialysis, 234 Crops, agricultural, water requirement, 3 Current efficiency, in electrodialysis, 225
D Datum constants, 49 Datum level, 49 Deaeration, 448, 449 Deaerator, 329
control of, 476 Debye-Hiickel theory, 10 Dechlorination, 447
Degassing, 448, see also Deaeration Demineralizers, see Ion exchange resins, beds Demonstration Plants
Freeport, Texas, 16 Roswell, New Mexico, 17 San Diego, California, 16 table of, 18
Webster, South Dakota, 17
Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina, 17
Desalination plants, table of, 6
Desalination processes, classification of, 15 Desalting processes, see Desalination processes Diffusion, 57
Diffusion coefficients
in hyperfiltration membrane, 390 in phenomenological analysis of hyperfiltra
tion, 375, 391
in water-organic mixtures, 397 Dihydrate, see Calcium sulfate
Dispersion plates, for liquid-liquid heat ex
changers, 137, 146 Dissipation, 64, 67 Distillate, 78 Distillation, 77
boiling, 93 critical, 89 flash, 102
comparison with vapor reheat distilla
tion, 119, 124, 126, 147 large plants, cost, 147 multistage, 118 high-pressure, 89 multiple effect, 92
near-critical, see Distillation, critical single effect, 87
solar, 152, see Solar distillation systems engineering
general, 77 internal, 87 use of reject heat, 87 vapor compression, 110
vapor reheat, see Vapor reheat distillation Distribution coefficients, membrane-solution,
363, 377
Donnan effect, 214, 215, see also Salt inva
sion, membranes Draft
firm, 531 reduced, 532, 533 storage curve, 532 years of, 534
Driving forces, relative magnitudes, 217 Dual-purpose plants, see Combination plants
Ε
Economics, comparison of different desalting methods, 424, see also specific meth
ods, e.g., Hyperfiltration, economics of; Thermoeconomics
560
SUBJECT INDEX Effective pressure, 351Electrochemical potential, 221
Electro-decantation, see Electrogravitation Electrodialysis, 200, see also Membranes, ion
exchange as pretreatment, 442 cost of, see economics of current efficiency, 225, 227 current reversal, 245 current utilization, 226, 267 economics of, 277, 280 energy requirements, 201, 271
comparison with distillation, 202 neutral membrane, 204
pH changes, see Electrodialysis, polariza- tion, water splitting
polarization, 230, 268 critical velocity, 234 water splitting, 231 posttreatment of water, 262 pretreatment of water, 260 principle of, 201, 204 pulsing, 245 salinity range, 258
selective, 243, see also Membranes, ion ex- change; Electrodialyzers
water quality, 260 Electrodialyzers
batch, 256, 272 cells, 242, 248
co-current and countercurrent, 248 continuous, 255, 272
crossflow, 252
current-voltage characteristics, 233 dimensions, influence on performance, 269 electrode reactions, 246
energy consumption, 241 feed-and-bleed, 256, 275 instrumentation, 259 internal staging, 276 manifold losses, 227 performance equations, 264 polarity reversal, 245 power requirements, 272 resistance, 267
spacers, 248, 250 stack resistance, 235 stack voltage efficiency, 235 stacks, 242, 252
staging, 253, 276 voltage control, 258
voltage requirements, 234 Electrogravitation, 205, 263, 284 Energy
for desalting, 16
minimum, for desalting, see Exergy, mini- mum for desalting; Enthalpy of desalt-
ing
requirements, distillation, 78, see also sep- arate methods, e.g., Hyperfiltration, energy requirements
Enthalpy, generalized, 60
Enthalpy balance, in distillation, 78 Enthalpy of desalting, 78
Entropy, partial, 59 Entropy creation, 25, 54
Evaporation, for preparation of ultrapure wa- ter, 449
Exergy, 23, 45
availability and, 24, 52 categories of, 25, 69 chemical, 24
definition of, 45, 50, 51, 65
minimum for desalting, 13, 37, 64, 201, 357 thermomechanical, 69
Exergy balance, 56, 66 Exergy dissipation
categories of, 25
related to entropy creation, 25, 70 Exergy function, generalization, 61
Exergy requirements, minimum, for desalting NaCl solutions, 357
Exergy.transport, 70
F
Faraday efficiency, 225 Faraday's constant, 214 Filter media, see Filters Filters, 446, 450, 460
anthracite, 446, 477
carbon, activated, 446, 447, 468, 478 cartridge, 450, 479
cellulosic, 446, 460, 479 diatomite, 447, 478 sand, 446, 478 screen, 480 submicron, 450, 479
Filtration, 446, 460, see also Filters condensates, 447
control of, 476 cost of, 543 Firm draft, 531
S U B J E C T I N D E X
561
Fixed-charge membranes, see Membranes, ion exchange
Fixed gases, effect on mass transfer, 133 Flash pots, 94
Food chain, and water requirements, 3 Free energy, total, of NaCl solutions, 358 Freezing point depression, 299
Freezing processes, 291 butane, 313
counterwasher, see Wash-separation col
umn direct, 310, 315
air removal, 329, 333
capital equipment, table of, 335 compressor, 324, 327
cost vs. capacity, 338
counterwasher, see Wash-separation col
umn economics, 334 flow diagram, 318, 320 heat exchangers, 321 hydroconverter, 319, 324 mass and energy balances, 320 melter, 317, 327
plant layout, 331, 332
power requirements, table, 336 prefreezer, 323
scale model, 333, 334 schematic, 316 energy requirement, 299 history of, 292
hydrates, see Hydrate processes indirect, 309
melter, 317
thermodynamics of, 298
vacuum freezing-vapor compression, see Freezing processes, direct
vapor absorption, 312
G
Gained output ratio, 80
Gas constant, and related expressions, table of, 356
Gibbs chemical potential, 47, 51, 216 Gibbs-Duhem equation, 49
Gibbs function, see Chemical potential Gibbs potential, see Chemical potential Global systems, 49
Glycerol triacetate-water mixtures, 398, 399 Glycol-water mixtures, 399
Graetz-Nusselt heat transfer problem, 404
Η Harned's rule, 397 Heat exchangers
freezing processes, 321
liquid-liquid, 134, 139, 146, see also Vapor reheat distillation
construction of, 137, 146 for large plants, 143 heat transfer coefficients, 140 hydrocarbons for, 134 hydrostatic balance, 138 pumping energy, 144 sectionalized, 136, 145 thermoeconomics of, 35 Heat of transport, membranes, 224
Heat-transfer coefficient, 91, see also Heat exchangers
in distillation, 91 liquid-liquid, 140, 141
table of, 142
Helical boiler, for vapor reheat distillation, PH. 131
Helical condenser, for vapor reheat distilla
tion, 132
Hemihydrate, see Calcium sulfate Hydrate processes, 339
flow sheet, 340 propane, 341
flowsheet, 342 Hydration, 11
Hydrocarbons, as heat transfer liquids, 134 Hydroconverter, definition of, 319
Hydrogen bonding, in hyperfiltration, 371 Hydrogen bonds, in water, 7, 8
Hyperfiltration, 345 breakthrough curve, 353
concentration polarization, 352, 355, 402, 410, 414
concentration profile in membrane, 377, 378, 380
diffusion coefficients, 375 driving force, 368 economics of, 421
comparison with other methods, 423, 424 effect of membrane cost, 425, 428 optimized conditions, 428 energy requirements, 353
equilibrium thermodynamics, 362, 397 equipment, 416
flux coupling, 376, 377
Hyperfiltration (continued) history of, 348
irreversible thermodynamic analysis, 371 mechanism of, 370
membranes, 348, 383, 392 cellulose acetate, 348, 384, 389 clay, 393
distribution coefficient, 363, 367 fibers, hollow, 421
ion exchange, 348 miscellaneous, 391, 394 model solutions, 395 salt uptake, 362, 397
solvent mixtures as models for, 395 optimization, 426
phenomenological analysis, 371 principle of, 351, 353
pumping work laminar flow, 415 turbulent flow, 413, 414 porous ion exchange bodies, 364 recovery of compression energy, 361, 422 salt rejection, see Salt rejection
sewage treatment, 430
solvent mixtures, as models for membranes, 395
transport equations, 373 turbines for discharge, 361, 422 urine, 421
I
Ice, see also Sea ice, Ice crystals crystallization, 300
wash column, 307
Icebergs, as fresh water source, 293 Ice crystals
growth, 301 habit, 301 nucleation, 303 purity of, 301, 304
separation from brine, 306, 314 size, 297
supersaturation, 303
Impoundment, cost of, 531, 536, see also Res
ervoirs
Information theory, 23, 44 Intake
surface, cost of, 544, 545 wells, see Wells
Ion exchange, 447, see also Ion exchange res
ins
in water treatment, 447, 455
Ion exchange capacity, porous bodies, 365 Ion exchange membranes, see Membranes,
ion exchange Ion exchange resins, 481
beds
backwashing of, 482 control of, 477
counterflow operation of, 487 fouling of, 487
head loss in, 482
mixed, 447, 459, 461, 466, 468 operating characteristics; table of, 459 operating characteristics, table of, 458 precipitation in, 486
pressure loss in, 482 clumping, 483
condensate treatment, 461, 467 high temperature stability of, 485
"nuclear" grade, 466 radiation effects on, 485 regeneration of, 463 solubility of, 483 stability of, 484, 485, 486 sterilization of, 450, 472
table of those manufactured in U.S., 481 testing of, 484
Ion transport, 203, see also Membranes, ion exchange
Ionic membranes, see Membranes, ion exchange
Irreversible thermodynamics in thermoeconomics, 25, 63, 67 membranes, 215, 373
Κ
Keenan availability, see Availability Koppers process, see Hydrate processes
L
Latent heat condensation, 79 evaporation, 79
Limiting currents, electrodialysis, see Electro
dialysis, polarization
Liquid-liquid heat exchangers, see Heat ex
changers, liquid-liquid
Logarithmic mean temperature difference, 91
S U B J E C T I N D E X
563
Μ
Magnesium hydroxide, solubility of, as func
tion of p H , 500
Make-up water, for nuclear power plants, 465 Mass transfer coefficients
effect of fixed gases on, 133 vapor reheat distillation, 130
Mean temperature difference, logarithmic, 91 Membrane potential, 220, 222
Membranes
for hyperfiltration, see Hyperfiltration, membranes
ion exchange, 201, 206 calcium transport, 244 heat of transport, 224 inorganic, 393
irreversible thermodynamics, 215 manufacturers, list of, 207 permselectivity, 226 polarization, 230 preparation of, 213 properties, 208
table of, 209 salt uptake, 363 selective transport in, 201 transport properties, 201, 213, 218 water transfer, 228
permselective, 203, see also Membranes, ion exchange
Minimum energy for desalting, see Exergy, minimum for desalting, Enthalpy of desalting
Mixed-bed ion exchange, 447, 459, 461, 466, 468
Mobility, electrical, 214 Ν Nernst-Einstein relation, 231 Nernst-Planck equations, 231
Neutral membrane electrodialysis, 204, 262, 282
Nuclear power plants, see Power plants, nu
clear
Nuclear process water, preparation of, 468 Nucleation, see Scale, nucleation
Ο
O M R , definition of, 538 Optimization
combined distillation and power plants, 83
electrodialysis, 278 exergy-cost balances, 33 hyperfiltration, 426 nonlinear cost equation, 70 procedure, summary of, 42 vapor reheat distillation, 148 Osmosis, reverse, see Hyperfiltration Osmotic coefficient, 354
Oxygen removal, 449, see also Deaeration
Ρ Peclet number, 404
Perchlorates, effect on glycerol triacetate-wa
ter systems, 402 Performance ratio, 80 Permselectivity, 226
Phase diagram, sea water-ice, 297
Pierre, S. D. water supply, as illustration of components of conventional supply, 547
Pipe lines cost of, 538
horizontal, optimized conveyance condi
tions, 540 hydraulic gradient, 542 inclined, 543
right of way costs, 537 static lift, 541
Plants, see Desalination plants
Plastic covers, for solar stills, see Solar distil
lation, plastic covered stills
Polarization, see Concentration polarization, Electrodialysis, polarization
"Potential" scale, see Scale, "potential"
Power plants nuclear
coolant water, 466 make-up water, 465 pool water treatment, 467 water requirements, 452, 465
Power-water plants, see Combination plants Precipitation, annual, 1, 2
Present-value method, water cost estimation, 526, 527
Pressure, effective, 351 Principal product, 27 Product ratio, 121
"Profit taking," at zone boundaries, 26 Pump stations
investment costs, 539
operation, maintenance, and repair costs, 539
Pumping power, in distillation, 81 Pyrogens, 442, 444, 451, 471
R
Radiation, solar, see Solar radiation Raoult's law, application to brackish water,
356
Rectangular boiler, for vapor reheat distilla- tion, 128, 129
"Reduced 274 day low flow," 532 Reduced draft, 532, 533
Refrigeration, see Freezing processes Regenerative use of heat of evaporation,
79 Reservoirs
cost of, 528 necessary size, 531
operation and maintenance, cost of, 530 Re-use of water, 5
Reverse osmosis, see Hyperfiltration Reynolds number, in hyperfiltration, 410, 412 Runoff, 2
S
Saline water conversion, see Desalination processes
Saline water program, U.S., history of, 15, 516
Salinity, 295
Salt exclusion, see Co-ion exclusion Salt filtering, see Hyperfiltration
efficiency, see Salt rejection
Salt invasion, membranes, 363, 377, 397 Salt rejection, 352, see also Co-ion exclusion,
Salt invasion, Activity coefficients clay membranes, 393
coupled flow, 379 definition, 377
effect of concentration polarization, 409, 412
of distribution coefficients, 382, 390 of pressure on, 382, 390
mechanism of, 370 noncoupled flow, 381 Scale, 497
boundary layer effects, 510
in electrodialysis, 246, 506, 513
influence of evaporator operating tempera- ture on nature of, 501
of nucleation site, 511 of residence time, 510 nucleation, 507, 511 nucleation time, 508, 509
"potential," 505 prevention of, 246, 512 seed control, 512
Sea ice, salinity distribution in, 292 Sea salt solutions
minimum exergy for desalting, 357 osmotic pressure of, 359
Sea water, see Sea salt solutions concentrates, see Sea salt solutions phase diagram, 297
Sediment, 498
Separation processes, general discussion, 14 Shaft work, 55
Shell deodorized spray base, 135 Sludge, 498
Sodium chloride solutions
minimum exergy for desalting, 357 osmotic pressure of, 360
Softening
by electrodialysis, 245 cost of, 543
Solar distillation, 151 basin stills, 175, 176, 183 convection in, 162 cost of, 187
Daytona Beach station, 168, 183 design of stills, 174
direct, 157 economics of, 187
efficiency of, definition, 160 energy balance
qualitative discussion, 157 quantitative relations, 160 experimental studies, 168, 182 glass-covered still design, 174, 182 heat and mass transfer correlations, 173 indirect, 193
indoor still studies, 168
influence of brine depth, 166, 167, 172 laboratory studies of isolated factors, 168,
171
list of sizable installations, 174 miscellaneous designs, 181, 184 plastic-covered still, 177, 184
SUBJECT INDEX 565
p r i n c i p l e of, 1 5 7 p r o d u c t i v i t y
l a b o r a t o r y still, 1 6 9 , 1 7 1 t h e o r e t i c a l , 1 6 3 , 1 6 4 s c h e m a t i c of b a s i n still, 1 5 8 s m a l l s t i l l s , 1 8 4
t i l t e d w i c k still, 1 7 9 , 1 8 5 m u l t i p l e - l e d g e , 1 8 0 t r a n s i e n t c o n d i t i o n , 1 6 5 S o l a r h e a t s u p p l y , 1 9 3
S o l a r r a d i a t i o n , i n t e n s i t y of, 1 5 2 , 1 5 3 S o l a r stills, see S o l a r d i s t i l l a t i o n S o l i d s
d i s s o l v e d , 4 4 4
s u s p e n d e d , 4 4 4 , 4 4 5 , 4 7 4 t o t a l , 2 9 5 , 4 4 2 , 4 7 0 S o l u b i l i t y p r o d u c t , 5 0 4 S o l u t i o n s
e l e c t r o l y t e
p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y of, 1 0 t r a n s p o r t p r o p e r t i e s , 12 n o n e l e c t r o l y t e , 1 0
S p e c i f i c e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n , 8 2
S p r a y b a s e , for l i q u i d - l i q u i d e x c h a n g e , 1 3 5 S t e r i l i z a t i o n , 4 5 1 , 4 7 0
Stills, see D i s t i l l a t i o n S t r e a m i n g p o t e n t i a l , 2 2 4 S u s p e n d e d solids, 4 9 8 S u p e r s a t u r a t i o n , 4 9 9
in e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s , 2 4 6 , 5 0 6 , 5 1 3 S w e l l i n g p r e s s u r e , 2 1 4
S y m i s o l a r still, 1 7 8 S y n t h e s i z e d c o s t s , 5 2 4
d e f i n i t i o n of, 5 2 5 S y s t e m
d e f i n i t i o n of, 5 0 g l o b a l , 4 9
Τ
T h e r m a l l o a d , 91
T h e r m o e c o n o m i c s , d e f i n i t i o n of, 2 2 T r a n s f e r e n c e n u m b e r , 2 1 9
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of, 2 2 2
T r a n s p o r t d e p l e t i o n , 2 0 4 , see also N e u t r a l m e m b r a n e e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s
T r a n s p o r t in m e m b r a n e s , see I o n e x c h a n g e m e m b r a n e s , H y p e r f i l t r a t i o n
T r a n s p o r t n u m b e r , 2 0 3 , 2 1 9 T r a n s p o r t p r o p e r t i e s , s o l u t i o n s , 1 2 T r e a t m e n t of w a t e r , see W a t e r t r e a t m e n t
U l t r a f i l t r a t i o n , see H y p e r f i l t r a t i o n U l t r a p u r e w a t e r , 4 4 1
U n i t e d S t a t e s
m a p s h o w i n g p h y s i c a l p r o v i n c e s , 5 2 9 m a p s h o w i n g s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , 1 5 3 s a l i n e w a t e r p r o g r a m , h i s t o r y of, 1 5 , 5 1 6
V
V a p o r c o m p r e s s i o n d i s t i l l a t i o n , 2 7 , 1 1 0 V a p o r c o m p r e s s o r , 3 2 4 , 3 2 7
V a p o r r e h e a t d i s t i l l a t i o n , 1 1 7
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h flash d i s t i l l a t i o n , 1 1 9 , 1 2 4 c o n d e n s e r s , falling film, 1 2 7
o p e n c h a n n e l , 1 2 9 s p r a y , 1 2 7 cost d a t a , 1 4 9 e c o n o m i c s of, 1 4 5 , 1 4 9 e q u i p m e n t
c o n f i g u r a t i o n , 1 2 8 , 1 2 9 m a t e r i a l s of c o n s t r u c t i o n , 1 4 6 flowsheet, 1 1 9 , 1 2 0
h e a t r e q u i r e m e n t s , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1 p H c o n t r o l , for, 1 4 5 p r i n c i p l e of, 1 1 9 p u m p i n g costs, 1 2 4 p u m p i n g e n e r g y for, 1 2 5
W
W a s h - s e p a r a t i o n c o l u m n , 3 0 7 , 3 1 4 , 3 1 5 , 3 2 6 , 3 2 9
W a s t e d i s p o s a l , f r o m w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s , 4 9 0
W a t e r
c o s t of, 5 2 1 , 5 4 7
d e m i n e r a l i z e d , see specific p r o c e s s e s , e.g., E l e c t r o d i a l y s i s
d i s s o l v e d g a s e s , 4 4 4 d i s t i l l e d , see D i s t i l l a t i o n i m p u r i t i e s in, t a b l e of, 4 4 4 u l t r a p u r e vs. d e m i n e r a l i z e d , 4 7 2 p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y of, 7 p u r e , 4 4 2
s t r u c t u r e of, 7 u l t r a p u r e
a n a l y s i s of, 4 7 4
c o n d u c t i v i t y of, 4 4 3 , 4 4 7 , 4 7 5 c o s t of, 4 9 0
d e f i n i t i o n of, 4 4 2 for l a b o r a t o r y use, 4 7 2
for pharmaceutical industries, 471 for polymer manufacture, 472 for power plants, 452, 465
for semiconductor manufacture, 469, 470 for television tube manufacture, 470 impurity limit, 442
industries in need of, 451 p H of, 475
preparation of
chemicals for, table, 488 control systems, 476 table, 456
{see also Water treatment; also specific processes, e.g., Coagulation, etc.) recirculation of, 451
resistivity of, 443, 447, 475 re-use of, 490
storage of, 473
Water analysis, ultrapure water, 474 Water consumption, in U.S.A., 3 Water cost estimating procedures, 526 Water costs
fixed, 527
synthesized, 524, 525 variable, 527
Water splitting, in electrodialysis, 231 Water supply
conventional
compared to desalinated water, 519 cost components, table, 521 illustrative total costs, 547, 548 distribution system, investment cost, 522 user cost, 523
Water transfer, 228
effect on membrane potential, 222 Water treatment
chemicals for, table of, 488 cost of, 543
for ultrapure water, table of processes, 445 Water withdrawal, in U.S., 2
Wells, water production from, cost, 546 Work minimum, for desalting, see Exergy,
minimum for desalting
Ζ
Zarchin process, see Freezing processes, di
rect; Freezing processes, vacuum freez
ing-vapor compression Zones, in energy-cost balances, 27
