AS A SOCIO-HISTORICAL

Codification is a standard means for making the law public and available, as well as fox recording the law in written texts. It is a tool known since the law's early development.

The fundamental task of codification in antiquity was the exclu- sion of any doubts in the presentation of the law, for example, the restoration by the Laws of HAMMURABI of the validity of ancient traditions in accordance with the prevailing interests of the ruler, declaration of law as the common body of rules for the social game by the Laws of Twelve Tables (at least according to TITUS LIVIUS' legend of its origin), and also as a halt of law's previous development by the Codex Iustinianus. In the medieval era, codi- fication made possible the registration, recording and uniform edit- ing of the consolidated customs, adapted and brought up to date, prevailing in particular areas of customary law. Sn the modern era, the continued recording of recognised customs, the declaration of newly established national laws, the collection of an unambiguous body of law designated to be applicable by the sovereign power, as well as the activity of legal reform, often hidden and sometimes executed under the guise of restoring old-time conditions only ideologically postulated, have fallen within the domain of tasks for codification.

(Earlier the mere collection of portions of the law into q u a n t i t a t i v e s u m m a t i o n s proved to be enough for completing the task, without any structural renewal. However, on the European continent in the modern era, ending feudal disunity and division became the sine qua non for survival among competing empires and dynasties. In order to achieve this, the monarch had to organise the state army and its state financing separate from his own, as well as a bureaucratic institutional machinery to run them, which could function in an impersonal way to implant a far- reaching regulatory system. For the lucid arrangement and up-to- date handling of such a quantity of regulations, the old methods could not prove adequate. In other words, in the codification of continental Europe the quantitative collecting of legal material was replaced by their q u a l i t a t i v e r e s t r u c t u r i n g .

The genuine breakthrough was based on the idea of legality, the conceptualisation of laws into a sequence of legal rights and duties, which translated the bourgeois view of society into the language of

law, realised through complete structural reform, re-establishing anb re-positing of the whole body of law. This was accomplished by Enlightenment's bold demand for change, by the planning ethos characteristic of rationalism, by the re-founding of natural law (by this time already opposed to feudalism), and, as to its methods, by taking the more geometrico [geometric manner] pattern from the axiomatic idea of the exact sciences (especially mathematics and physics). With the triumph of the idea of constructing more geo- metrico, the law became represented as a system having axiomatic logic as its ideal, replacing the chaotic mass of rules, disorderly and full of contradictions, built one upon the other by chance. The sys- tem was constructed as the well-ordered assembly of g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s , serving as foundation stones for the whole as- semblage, g e n e r a l r u l e s , s p e c i f i c r u l e s , ex- c e p t i o n s f r o m t h e r u l e s , and e x c e p t i o n s f r o m t h e e x c e p t i o n s . All this was done in a code usually consisting of two parts, namely, the g e n e r a l p a r t , which provided the directives for the entire legislation, and a s p e c i a l p a r t , which offered regulation calibrated for standard situations (for example, individual contracts defined in civil law, or the legal facts that constitute a case in criminal law).

Princely absolutism attempted to operate with casuistic precision (the General Law of the Prussian Territory, 1791), but did not succeed. The Civil Code with which the French revolutionary re- newal concluded (1804), then the Austrian (1811), the German (1897), and the Swiss (1907) codes of civil law, resulted in framing the influential bodies of the law on the European continent that are still in force today.

Codification meant new possibilities in the presentation of the law, as well as in its internal organisation and structure. The germ of the claim for l e g a l p o s i t i v i s m was first for- mulated in the imperial codification of Justinian and, later, FREDERICK THE GREAT: the embodiment of laws in a series of con- cepts; the development of its fundamental classifications and con- ceptual system, with an emphasis on prohibiting interpretation except before an extraordinary imperial committee; and, finally, the reduction of law [ius] to the body of enacted laws [lex], that is, the exclusive identification of law with the outcome of its formal

CODIFICATION

AS A SOCIO-HISTORICAL

PHENOMENON

C

V

CODIFICATION

AS A SOCIO-HISTORICAL PHENOMENON

Szent István Társulat

az Apostoli Szentszék Könyvkiadója

Budapest 2011

Translated by

S

E

(Chapters 2–6, 8–9 & 11–12) J

P

(Chapters 1 & 7)

C

V

(Chapter 10 & Annex & Postscript) Translation revised by

J

P

(Chapters 1–12)

M

T

(Annex & Postscript)

Second edition

Reprint of Csaba Varga Codification as a Socio-historical Phenomenon (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 1991) [viii + 391 pp.] {ISBN 963 05 6012 7}

pp. 1–352, with an Annex & Postscript

ISBN 978 963 361 911 7

© Csaba Varga, Budapest 2011

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, or transmitted, or translated into machine language without the written permission of the copyright holder

Szent István Társulat

H–1053 Budapest, Veres Pálné utca 24.

Responsible publisher: Dr. Huba Rózsa

Responsible manager: Olivér Farkas

CONTENTS

Abbreviations...1

I. INTRODUCTION...13

PART ONE: HISTORICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF THE IDEA OF CODIFICATION II. EARLY FORMS OF CODIFICATION: ANTIQUITY...27

1. Reform of Customs and their Recording in Early Antiquity...27

2. Compilation of Laws by Later Codes...31

3. General Features of Ancient Codification...35

4. Conclusion...38

III. EARLY FORMS OF CODIFICATION: THE MIDDLE AGES...46

1. Codes of the Mediaeval Empires...46

2. Codifications of Feudal Division...51

3. Experiments in Substituting Customary Law by Statutory Law in the Age of Centralization...56

4. General Features of Mediaeval Codification...59

5. Conclusion...60

IV. CODIFICATION TRENDS IN THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM...71

1. Emergence of the Concept of Codification Qualitatively Reshaping the Law...71

2. Partial Codifications in France...73

3. Successful Codifications Unifying the Law...74

a) Codification of Bureacratic Patronage in Prussia...74

V

b) Systematic Codification in Austria...78

4. Consolidation of Law as a Substitute for Codification in Russia...80

5. Conclusion...82

V. CLASSICAL TYPE OF CODIFICATION: CONTINENTAL CODES IN THE SERVICE OF BOURGEOIS TRANSFORMATION...91

1. Inadequacy of Codification under Enlightened Abolutism...91

2. The French Revolution and the Evolution of the Classical Type of Codification...93

a) Pre-Revolutionary Roots...93

b) Formation of the Code civil...97

3. Late Bourgeois Codes...105

a) Codification of the Aborted Revolution in Germany...105

b) The Law-Unifying Code of Monopoly Capitalism in Switzerland...110

4. The Consummation of Continental Codification...113

5. The Non-Recurrent Nature of Bourgeois Codification...118

6. Conclusion...123

VI. ATTEMPTS AT CODIFICATION: COMMON LAW SYSTEMS...143

1. Early English Development...143

2. The Development of Codification in 19

-Century England...147

3. Unifying Codification in British India...149

4. Codification and British Law Export to the Colonies...151

5. Primitivized Law Adaptation in the American Colonies...152

6. Codes as a Means of Founding a New State...154

7. Special Aspects of Codification in Common Law Systems...158

8. Stubstitutes for Codification in Common Law Development...161

9. Conclusion...165

VII. STRIVING FOR CODIFICATION: AFRO–ASIAN SYSTEMS...171

1. The Complexity of Afro – Asian Legal Development...171

2. Codification of Islamic Law...172

3. Codification as a Means of Substituting Tribal Costums...179

4. Codification in the Modernized Afro–Asian Societies...187

5. Conclusion...191

VI

VIII. NEW AMBITIONS IN CODIFICATION:

SOCIALIST LAW...205

1. The Soviet-Russian Experience...205

2. Re-Codification Attempts in the Soviet Union...216

3. Codification in the Satellite Countries...218

4. Re-Codification in Socialist Law...225

5. Conclusion...229

PART TWO: TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT OF CODIFICATION IX. POSSIBILITY OF A GENERAL CONCEPT OF CODIFICATION...247

1. Unity of the Historical Manifestations of the Codification Phenomenon...247

2. The Concept of Codification Development...258

3. The Concept of Codification...262

X. RATIONALIZATION AS THE MOTIVE FORCE BEHIND CODIFICATION DEVELOPMENT...273

1. Rationality and Social Development...273

2. Rationalization of Law in the History of Codification...285

3. Utopias of Rationality in the Development of the Idea of Codification...296

XI. TYPES OF CODIFICATION IN CODIFICATION DEVELOPMENT...318

1. Functional Types of Codification...318

2. Codification as a Quantitative and as a Qualitative Treatment of the Law...329

3. The Common Core of Codification Phenomena...333

XII. CODIFICATION IN PRESENT-DAY DEVELOPMENT: CONCLUDING REMARKS...346

INDEX...353

INDEX OF NAMES...361

INDEX OF THE SOURCES OF LAW...371

VII

POSTSCRIPT:

CODIFICATION ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE THIRD MILLENNIUM [2002]

I. C

N

...395

1. With Ethos Changed...397

2. Undermined by Disappointment...400

II. S

F

P

...402

3. Systemicity as the Core Element...402

4. Challenge by the European Union...404

5. The Issue of Convergence...409

III. H

R

...413

6. Reconsidering Early Past...413

7. Reconsidering Late Modernity...416

8. Transubstantiation of the Code-based Function...419

IV. P

...422

9. With a Methodological Conclusion...422

10. Arriving at a Crossroads Again...423

INDEXES...425 ANNEX

CODIFICATION [1999]...inside the cover

VIII

A B B R E V I A T I O N S

Al Állam és Igazgatás ÁJ Állam- és Jogtudomány

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C o t r a n E . C o t r a n 'The P l a c e and F u t u r e of C u s t o m a r y Law in E a s t A f r i c a ' in East African Law Today (London: The B r i t i s h I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d C o m p a r a t i v e L a w 1966)

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I, I N T R O D U C T I O N

C e r t a i n t h i n g s are n a t u r a l and t a k e n for g r a n t e d in our l i v e s ; t h i n g s w e a s s e r t , accept and use p e r f e c t l y n a t u r a l l y , w i t h o u t e v e r q u e s t i o n i n g w h y t h e y e x i s t . In e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e , lots of o u r j u d g e m e n t s r e f l e c t i n g r e s u l t s of h u m a n c o g n i t i o n tend t o b e c o m e r e c u r r i n g s t e r e o t y p e s . On the o n e h a n d , they can d o u b t l e s s l y e x i s t in t h e i r own r i g h t b e c a u s e they are e p i s t e - m o l o g i c a l l y w e l l f o u n d e d and h a v e b e e n r e p e a t e d l y a f f i r m e d in a c t u a l u s e . On the o t h e r , t h e i r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n into s o c i a l f a c t s of life m a y o b s c u r e their o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T r u e , their a p p l i c a t i o n is a l w a y s a c c o m p a n i e d by a c o n c r e t e d e f i n i - t i o n as to p u r p o s e , m e t h o d , e t c H o w e v e r , since they a r e , as a g e n e r a l r u l e , s o c i a l l y u s e f u l , the s p h e r e in w h i c h they are put t o use is not one w h e r e the q u e s t i o n of the how and why of t h e i r raison d'être n e c e s s a r i l y c r o p s u p . In j u d g e m e n t s o f t h i s s o r t , the c o n t e n t , m e t h o d , p u r p o s e , and the c o n t e x t in q u e s - t i o n , in o t h e r w o r d s , the how and why, are t a k e n as a m a t t e r o f fact. These j u d g e m e n t s s t r i k e us as u n q u e s t i o n a b l y o b v i o u s even t h o u g h t h e i r o r i g i n a l c o n t e n t m a y get o b s c u r e d ; and a c h a n g e in the o r i g i n a l c o n d i t i o n s m a y d e t a c h them from t h e i r c o n t e n t , in- d e e d , it m a y e v e n r e p u d i a t e it.

There are s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a that are t a k e n for g r a n t e d s p a n - ning w h o l e h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d s . In f a c t , that is w h a t a p p e a r s to be h a p p e n i n g w i t h the c o n c e p t of c o d i f i c a t i o n , b o t h in p u b l i c o p i n i o n and in the l i t e r a t u r e on law.

It w o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e u n r e a l i s t i c to b l a m e a n t i q u i t y or the M i d d l e A g e s for failing t o p r o v i d e some k i n d of d o c t r i n a l a n a l - ysis laying d o w n the t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s for c o d i f i c a t i o n . Y e t , w e s h a l l see h o w n a t u r a l and o b v i o u s t h e m o s t a n c i e n t and p r i m i t i v e forms o f c o d i f i c a t i o n w e r e in t h o s e p e r i o d s w h e n w r i t i n g w a s first used a s a m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n in state o r g a n i z a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; and w e shall s e e h o w c o d i f i c a - t i o n r e a c h e d the h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e l e v e l of d e v e l o p m e n t it could r e a c h in the R o m a n E m p i r e u n d e r J u s t i n i a n , and h o w , a s the m o d e l form of w r i t t e n l e g i s l a t i o n , it g r e w into a p a t t e r n to be

f o l l o w e d in the M i d d l e A g e s .

The e x i s t e n c e of c o d e s w a s not t h e o r e t i c a l l y c h a l l e n g e d u n t i l the 18th c e n t u r y . It w a s in t h i s c e n t u r y that b u r e a u - c r a t i c c o d i f i c a t i o n (unifying the law of f e u d a l a b s o l u t i s m ) reached the h e i g h t of its d e v e l o p m e n t and t h e e l a b o r a t i o n of t h e c o d i f i c a t i o n s of the b o u r g e o i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y age w a s s t a r t - e d . That w a s the time w h e n p h i l o s o p h i c a l r a t i o n a l i s m , a w o r l d o u t l o o k a r r a n g e d in m a t h e m a t i c a l o r d e r , the d o c t r i n e o f n a t u r a l law and its a x i o m a t i c c o n c e p t i o n c o m b i n e d t o c o n s t r u c t a u n i - fied s y s t e m o f v i e w s t h a t c o u l d p r o v i d e the i d e o l o g y u n d e r l y i n g the e m e r g i n g theory of codification.

Both f e u d a l a b s o l u t i s m and b o u r g e o i s r e v o l u t i o n , the force a s p i r i n g to o v e r c o m e a b s o l u t i s m , had t o e l i m i n a t e c o m p l e t e l y the legal c o n s e q u e n c e s of f e u d a l d i v i s i o n , a t a s k t h e y could n o t have c a r r i e d out w i t h o u t c o d i f i c a t i o n . The l a t t e r h a d , by t h e n , p r o v e d its a b i l i t y to unify n a t i o n a l law and i n t r o d u c e r e v o l u t i o n a r y n o v e l t i e s i n t o the l a w . A n d a t h e o r y such as t h i s did m a t e r i a l i z e , i n d e e d , it f u l f i l l e d its f u n c t i o n in t h a t it led to c o d e s of a h i g h s t a n d a r d and c a p a b l e of m e e t i n g the d e - m a n d s of the age in w h i c h they c a m e a b o u t . But t h e t h e o r y in q u e s t i o n w a s r a t h e r o n e - s i d e d ; it w a s b a s e d on false p r e m i s e s a n d had b a d r e s u l t s . It s p o k e of c o d i f i c a t i o n in g e n e r a l , w h e r e a s it c h a l l e n g e d n o t h i n g m o r e than t h e ad hoc p r o b l e m s of the p r e s e n t . It d i d n o t m a k e it r e a l l y c l e a r that c o d i f i c a t i o n w a s in i t s e l f a n e u t r a l f o r m , an instrument to b r i n g a b o u t a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the s t r u c t u r e and c o n t e n t of t h e l a w . C o n - s e q u e n t l y , it a l s o failed t o m a k e it c l e a r that t h e s t r u g g l e for c o d i f i c a t i o n w a s o n l y o n e of t h e m a n y forms in w h i c h p o l i t - 14

ical s t r u g g l e s are e x p r e s s e d and that t h e r e w e r e a l w a y s v e r y d e f i n i t e e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l a s p i r a t i o n s b e h i n d the c o d i f i - c a t i o n a t t e m p t s of f e u d a l a b s o l u t i s m or t h o s e of the r i s i n g b o u r g e o i s i e . The need for a t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n a p p e a r e d e v e n m o r e m a r k e d in 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n y w h e r e the p o l i t i c a l s t a k e s of c o d i f i c a t i o n m a n i f e s t e d t h e m s e l v e s q u i t e o p e n l y . The same a p p l i e s to B r i t a i n and the United States w h e r e c o d i f i c a - tion o f f e r e d , as it w e r e , a c h a n g e a p p a r e n t o n l y in the form o f law and d i d n o t e n v i s a g e a p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n or e v e n o n e in l e g a l c o n t e n t s (but s t i l l s h o o k , or c o u l d h a v e s h a k e n the w h o l e i n s t i t u t i o n a l l e g a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t ) . The c o n t r o v e r s y b e - t w e e n S a v i g n y a n d T h i b a u t in G e r m a n y , B e n t h a m ' s lonely s t r u g - gle in E n g l a n d , o r t h e m o v e m e n t c h a r a c t e r i z e d by F i e l d ' s w o r k in the United S t a t e s l a u n c h e d t h e i r d e c i s i v e o f f e n s i v e s from far m o r e t h o r o u g h l y p r e p a r e d t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s , and yet they failed in t h e i r a t t e m p t e d b r e a k t h r o u g h . The s o c i o - p o l i t i - cal c o n t e n t w a s d i s c o v e r e d b e h i n d the legal s u r f a c e and it w a s r e j e c t e d as an u n d e s i r a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e .

So there g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d a theory of codification to h e l p p a v e the w a y , in the t h e o r e t i c a l s p h e r e , for the e m e r g e n c e of the c l a s s i c a l t y p e o f c o d i f i c a t i o n . It r a i s e d q u e s t i o n s of i m p o r t a n c e and p r o v i d e d a n s w e r s of e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e e v e n if it was o n e - s i d e d and w a s b a s e d on false p r e m i s e s . But c o d i f i c a t i o n w a s b o t h s o c i a l l y and l e g a l l y an open q u e s t i o n , o f f e r i n g e v e n c h a n c e s to t h e m o s t c o n t r a d i c t o r y a p p r o a c h e s . H o w e v e r , w h e n c o d i f i c a t i o n b e c a m e a c c e p t e d and no longer r e q u i r e d s p e c i a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n , its t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n , o n e - s i d e d , yet in c o n s t a n t s e a r c h for a r e p l y t o the q u e s t i o n o f why, a l s o d i s a p - p e a r e d . F r o m h e r e o n the q u e s t i o n of c o d i f i c a t i o n , if it a p - p e a r s in a t h e o r e t i c a l form at a l l , is d i s c u s s e d o n l y a p o l o - g e t i c a l l y . The need for c o d i f i c a t i o n b e c o m e s a p o i n t of d e p a r - ture r e q u i r i n g no f u r t h e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n . I n v e s t i g a t i o n into the n a t u r e of c o d e s a s s u m e s a d i s t o r t e d a s p e c t , b a s e d as it is on the p o s t u l a t e of d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h o u t any a l t e r n a t i v e . No longer are the f a c t o r s that lead to the g i v e n code e x a m i n e d . I n s t e a d , t h e code is p o s t u l a t e d as a k i n d of a b s o l u t e v a l u e , s e r v i n g as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t for a s e a r c h o f the factors t h a t , as c o m p o -

n e n t s of the n a t i o n a l gloire, could be r e g a r d e d a s p r e p a r i n g c o d i f i c a t i o n as an o u t c o m e .

The s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s f a v o u r i n g s e l e c t i n g the p a r t i c u l a r road of c o d i f i c a t i o n w e r e m o r e m a n i f e s t in socialist codifica- tion t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . In the Soviet U n i o n , the b e g i n n i n g s of c o n s o l i d a t e d social c o n s t r u c t i o n w e r e m a r k e d by the s w i t c h - o v e r to the New E c o n o m i c P o l i c y w h i c h e n d e d t e m p o r a r y m i l i t a r y com- m u n i s m , i t s e l f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e of the r e v o l u t i o n . S o c i a l and e c o n o m i c c o n s o l i d a t i o n e n d e d the s o - c a l l e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y , i n - d e e d a n a r c h i c , p h a s e of ' r e v o l u t i o n a r y j u s t i c e ' w h i c h w a s s u p e r s e d e d by c o d i f i c a t i o n . A s soon as the first c o d e c a m e a b o u t , c o d i f i c a t i o n w a s m a d e the only a l t e r n a t i v e , a n d par ex- cellence f o r m , of s o c i a l i s t law.

This w a s b r o u g h t a b o u t by a c o m b i n a t i o n of f a c t o r s . F i r s t , as to the f o r m , Soviet law had s p e c i f i c t r a d i t i o n s b e h i n d it

(Russian, e t c . t r a d i t i o n s , in form of failed a t t e m p t s at Euro- p e a n i z i n g m o d e r n i z a t i o n , coded in C i v i l L a w ) . S e c o n d l y , the need for s o c i a l - l e g a l c o n s o l i d a t i o n e m e r g e d in the Soviet U n i o n p r e c i s e l y at a t i m e w h e n t h e idea of c l a s s i c a l c o d i f i c a t i o n in W e s t e r n E u r o p e (owing t o t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y j u r i s p r u d e n t i a l a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e law o f l i b e r a l c a p i t a l i s m to the n e e d s of m o n o p o l y c a p i t a l i s m a g a i n s t the c o d e s ) e x p e r i e n c e d a c r i s i s . W i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e New E c o n o m i c P o l i c y , t h e Soviet Union w a s s t r i v i n g t o a c h i e v e a type of l e g a l l y g u a r a n t e e d s o - cial and e c o n o m i c s e c u r i t y w h i c h W e s t e r n E u r o p e w a s just r e - j e c t i n g by its m o v e t o w a r d s t h e j u d i c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t of law.

The c r i s i s of the c l a s s i c a l type of c o d i f i c a t i o n in W e s t e r n Europe w a s r e l a t e d t o the c r i s i s o f the t y p e of r u l e of law t h e Soviets w a n t e d to e n s u r e . So c o d i f i c a t i o n a p p e a r e d to be a s u i t a b l e m e t h o d from t h i s p o i n t of v i e w t o o . T h i r d l y , s o c i a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n set itself a p r o g r a m m e d s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n and c o d i f i c a t i o n seemed to be the m o s t a d e q u a t e form for its legal i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . In the c o n t e x t of Soviet d e v e l o p m e n t , t h i s w a s all so o b v i o u s that it only r e q u i r e d a d e f i n i t i o n of d a y - t o - d a y p r a c t i c a l t a s k s and not an e x t e n s i v e d o c t r i n a l e x p l a n a t i o n in the legal f i e l d . In o t h e r w o r d s , it i s a m a j o r p a r a d o x i n h e r e n t in the b i r t h of s o c i a l i s t c o d i f i c a t i o n that it w a s c h o s e n in the interest of deliberate s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h i l e , w i t h 16

r e s p e c t to its t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s , the c h o i c e i t s e l f w a s not the o u t c o m e of a p r o c e s s of d e l i b e r a t e i n t e n t i o n .

C o d i f i c a t i o n b e c a m e a still m o r e n a t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the S o v i e t - p a t t e r n e d s a t e l l i t e r e g i m e s , m a i n l y in E a s t e r n C e n t r a l E u r o p e . N e w f a c t o r s w e r e a d d e d . T h e r e w a s the e x a m p l e of the e x p e r i e n c e s a c c u m u l a t e d in Soviet R u s s i a and there w e r e the a t t e m p t s at c o d i f i c a t i o n m a d e u n d e r the s h o r t - l i v e d H u n g a r i a n S o v i e t R e p u b l i c . M o r e o v e r , in s e v e r a l c o m m u n i s t - r u l e d c o u n t r i e s after the Second W o r l d W a r , c o d i f i c a - tion w a s r e g a r d e d as a t a s k left h a l f - a c c o m p l i s h e d by t h e i r s o - c i e t i e s m i d w a y t h r o u g h the p r o c e s s o f b o u r g e o i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . A l l t h e s e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d to a u n a n i m o u s w i l l for c o d i f i c a - t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , in s e v e r a l s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s in A s i a and E u r o p e , c o d i f i c a t i o n w a s t h e m e d i u m t h r o u g h w h i c h law h a d b e e n E u r o p e a n i z e d and, in f a c t , in H u n g a r y , c o d i f i c a t i o n c o i n c i d e d w i t h a b r e a k w i t h the r e m n a n t s of f e u d a l c u s t o m a r y law. C o d i f i - c a t i o n of law w a s so o b v i o u s to d o c t r i n a l t h i n k i n g that it w a s r e g a r d e d as the only form of legal s u p e r s t r u c t u r e b e f i t t i n g the e c o n o m i c b a s i s of s o c i a l i s m . L o o k i n g b a c k i n t o h i s t o r y , t h e r e was no o t h e r r e a l i s t i c a l t e r n a t i v e i n d e e d , not only for the communist p a r t i e s , but a l s o for s h o r t - l i v e d b o u r g e o i s e n d e a v - o u r s . N e i t h e r in p r a c t i c e nor in t h e o r y d i d p e o p l e have d o u b t s at all that c o d i f i c a t i o n w a s the best p a t h to f o l l o w .

W h i l e the s u p e r i o r i t y of the p a t h o f c o d i f i c a t i o n a p p e a r e d t o be o b v i o u s , t h e r e w a s a l s o a f e e l i n g t h a t it w o u l d b e o n e v o i d of p r o b l e m s . This c o n f i d e n c e led to v a r i o u s i l l u s i o n s , a n o t i n f r e q u e n t p h e n o m e n o n in the h i s t o r y of r e v o l u t i o n s in g e n - e r a l and in the e x i s t i n g communist s o c i e t i e s in p a r t i c u l a r . In the u p s u r g e of r e v o l u t i o n a r y h o n e y m o o n , it w a s b e l i e v e d that codes w e r e the sine qua non of s o c i a l i s t law and a m a j o r c o m p o - n e n t in the s o c i a l i s t s y s t e m of s o u r c e s of law. H o w e v e r , p r a c - t i c e in all s o c i a l i s t s t a t e s i n d i c a t e s that the p r i o r i t y o f c o d i f i c a t i o n in the system of s o u r c e s of law m a y a p p e a r p r i m a r - ily as a w i s h and o n l y to a v e r y m o d e s t e x t e n t as a c t u a l r e a l i - t y . Only t h i s can e x p l a i n w h y , e v e n under c o n s o l i d a t e d c o n d i - t i o n s , s o c i a l i s t law has b e e n u n a b l e to e l i m i n a t e the r u l e by d e c r e e s instead of l a w s .

N e i t h e r c o d i f i c a t i o n in g e n e r a l , nor any of its v a r i a n t s , have a t h e o r y p r o v i d i n g a n e x p l a n a t i o n of the c o d i f i c a t i o n p h e - n o m e n o n or o f its g e n u i n e h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d . What is m i s s - ing is n o t p a p e r s o n c o d i f i c a t i o n , as t h e r e a r e a g r e a t m a n y w o r k s d i s c u s s i n g i t from t h e p o i n t of v i e w of c u r r e n t legal p o l i c y or p u r e l y h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t . H o w e v e r , t h e s e s t u d i e s do n o t p r o v i d e us w i t h a t h e o r y since they are a l l b a s e d on s e e i n g t h e i r s u b j e c t as an u n q u e s t i o n e d n e c e s s i t y . T h e i r p r e m i s e s are t h e o r e m s that should r e a l l y o n l y be the f i n a l o u t c o m e o f a t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d y . A n d , of c o u r s e , they a r e s o m e w h a t in t h e n a - t u r e of a p o l o g i e s .

The fact that t h e s o c i a l l y c o m p e l l i n g d e s i r a b i l i t y of c o d i - f i c a t i o n has r e l i e v e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s and s o c i e t y at large o f the o b l i g a t i o n t o p r o v i d e t h o r o u g h g o i n g a n a l y s e s c o u l d b e u s e f u l at the t i m e . It p r e v e n t e d s p e c i a l i s t s from w a s t i n g e n e r g y on c o n - v i n c i n g p e o p l e a b o u t the n e e d for c o d i f i c a t i o n in g e n e r a l , and a l l o w e d t h e m to c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d in d r a w i n g u p the c o d e s in q u e s t i o n . The u n d e r l y i n g p r e m i s e s w h i c h had n e v e r b e e n q u e s t i o n e d or t h e o r e t i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d w e r e

further s t r e n g t h e n e d by v a r i o u s s t u d i e s t h a t h a d the a p p e a r a n c e of scientific confirmation. The need for codification and its s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s seem to h a v e in fact b e e n p r o v e d by s o c i a l and h i s t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e .

B e f o r e g o i n g any f u r t h e r , w e s h o u l d t a k e a c l o s e r look at the term " c o d i f i c a t i o n " . Some t h i r t y y e a r s a g o , t h e r e w a s a U N E S C O - s p o n s o r e d survey looking i n t o the basic sources of v a r i -

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o u s legal s y s t e m s . T h i s r e v e a l s that 73 s t a t e s o u t o f a t o t a l of 110 had legal s o u r c e s c a l l e d " c o d e s " , "books of l a w " and the like; 421 such s o u r c e s h a v e b e e n found. In o t h e r w o r d s , the form now t e r m e d c o d i f i c a t i o n e x i s t s in 67 p e r cent of k n o w n l e g a l s y s t e m s and e a c h system c o n s i s t s of an a v e r a g e o f 6 c o d e s . O n the o n e h a n d , t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h e e n o r m o u s s i g n i f i - c a n c e of c o d i f i c a t i o n as a legal s o u r c e , since c o d i f i c a t i o n in its r o l e of d e f i n i n g the m a i n o u t l i n e s of the m a j o r i t y o f l e g a l s y s t e m s is r e p r e s e n t e d b y f e w e r than five h u n d r e d codes in f o r c e . On the o t h e r h a n d , 114 of t h e s e (in o t h e r w o r d s , 34 per c e n t o f all codes in force) w e r e m a d e , or r e c e i v e d , in the last c e n t u r y , the c l a s s i c a l age o f c o d i f i c a t i o n . And so a p p e a r a n c e s 18

seem t o s u g g e s t that c o d i f i c a t i o n h a s b e c o m e p r e v a l e n t in m o s t e x i s t i n g l e g a l s y s t e m s , largely p r o d u c t s of t h e 19th c e n t u r y .

B e f o r e t r y i n g t o look further i n t o this p h e n o m e n o n , it is w o r t h n o t i n g that t h e v e r y w o r d "codification'" e m e r g e d in the 19th c e n t u r y . T h e w o r d " c o d e " , m e a n i n g "Book of L a w s " , p r o b a b l y a p p e a r e d first in t h e 13th c e n t u r y in W e s t e r n E u r o p e (e.g. in

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F r a n c e a r o u n d 1220 ) . H o w e v e r , the w o r d " c o d i f i c a t i o n " w a s c o i n e d by B e n t h a m from the n o u n " c o d e x " and t h e v e r b " f a c i s — f a c e r e " , and it w a s an e x p r e s s i o n he first u s e d in a letter to the R u s s i a n c z a r in June 1 8 1 5 . The same c o m p o u n d s e r v e d as a b a s i s for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e v e r b "codify" (1800) and the

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n o u n " c o d i f i e r " ( 1 8 3 0 ) . These c o i n a g e s s p r e a d f a s t . For i n - s t a n c e , " c o d i f i c a t i o n " w a s to be u s e d as a F r e n c h w o r d by H e n r i de S a i n t - S i m o n as e a r l y as 1 8 1 9 .5

The p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d in c o d i f i c a t i o n a r e m u c h w i d e r t h a n t h e s p h e r e c o v e r e d by the t e r m " c o d e " . F i r s t , a p h e n o m e n o n as a g i v e n q u a l i t y c a n n o t d e p e n d on the l a b e l p r o v i d e d by a n a m e . The forms f u n c t i o n i n g as c o d e s h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i d e r s p h e r e than the books c a l l e d as c o d e s . Secondly, codes are par excellence e x p r e s s i o n s of the c o m p l e x f u n c t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d by c o d i f i c a t i o n in a l e g a l s y s t e m , b u t t h e y are n o t the o n l y o n e s . N a t u r a l l y , the v a r i o u s c o d i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s r e a c h m o s t l y their p e a k in t h e code. Yet it w o u l d be i n a d m i s s i b l e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n to r e d u c e the w h o l e c o m p l e x of p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o c o d i f i c a t i o n to a s i n g l e form. C o d e s as s u c h are u l t i m a t e l y o n l y m e a n s to an e n d . The c o d e is a s p e c i f i c form of o b j e c t i v a t i o n w i t h the t a s k o f p o i n t i n g b e y o n d i t s e l f , b y o r g a n i z i n g c o n t e n t s to w h i c h the code m e r e l y lends e x p r e s s i o n . This is w h y , t h i r d l y , t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s m u s t not be limited t o t h e form o n l y . The code is to be u n d e r s t o o d in its o w n f u n c t i o n . It is in a s o c i a l t o t a l i t y that w e h a v e to r e v e a l the m o t i v a t i n g f o r c e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e l e g a l d e v e l o p m e n t in the d i r e c t i o n of the o b j e c t i v a t i o n of law in the form of c o d e s . The w i d e s t p o s s i b l e h i s t o r i c a l and c o m - p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s s h o u l d lead us to m e a n i n g f u l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s r e v e a l i n g some c o m m o n f e a t u r e s in the v a r i o u s p r e c o n d i t i o n s , f u n c t i o n s and p e r f o r m a n c e s o f c o d i f i c a t i o n .

By c o d i f i c a t i o n I m e a n m o r e t h a n the r a t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t that links the b i r t h of c o d i f i c a t i o n t o the basic oeu-

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