Charcoal and pollen analyses and vegetation reconstruction of the Alpine foreland in West Hungary

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Central European Journal of Geosciences

Charcoal and pollen analyses and vegetation

reconstruction of the Alpine foreland in West Hungary

Review Article

Katalin Náfrádi^1∗, Pál Sümegi¹, Tünde Tör ˝ocsik¹

1 Department of Geology and Palaeontology, University of Szeged, Szeged 6722, Egyetem utca 2-6, Hungary

Received 16 April 2012; accepted 12 September 2012

Abstract: In the area of archaeological excavations that were performed prior to the construction of Main Road No. 86 in Vas County (West Hungary) in the Alpine foreland new geoarchaeological analyses have been conducted. We used anthracology and pollen analyses to reconstruct the former vegetation cover at the study site. Charcoal data provide site-related information about the local woodland composition, management and human impact, while pollen data provide information on the arboreal and non-arboreal vegetation on a regional or local scale.

Adequate samples for anthracological analyses derive from the Bronze Age, Iron Age, Imperial and Migration Periods and Middle-Ages archaeological objects. The core for pollen analyses originates from alluvial sediments of the Borzó Creek and covers the late Pleistocene and the Holocene until the Medieval Period. Charcoal analyses show the dominance of Quercus trees in the vicinity of the human settlements that might indicate a strong human selection, or the fragmentation of samples. Pollen analyses indicate thermophilous vegetation from the beginning of the Holocene, with increasing values of Fagus and Carpinus. Pollens of cereals indicate human activity, which is also demonstrated by the presence of pollen from Juglans and Vitis in the Iron Age sequence. Extensive forest clearance occurred in the Late Iron Age and the Imperial Period.

Keywords: palaeoecology • vegetation change • archaeological sites • Hungary • pollen analysis • charcoal analysis

© Versita Sp. z o.o.

1. Introduction

Due to the accelerated development of Quaternary research during the last two decades in Hungary [1–5]

palaeoecological studies became very significant and several pollen analytical and anthracological papers have appeared [6–11]. Within the last few years, environmental historical research, including anthracological analyses, was carried out on samples from the archaeological sites of Main Road No. 86 in Vas County, West Hungary. At the

∗E-mail: nafradi@geo.u-szeged.hu

same time, pollen analyses were performed on undisturbed cores from the alluviums of the Borzó and Surányi Creeks near the excavations. Anthracology is a very important method in geoarchaeological studies as it can correct or improve the results of pollen and plant macrofossil analysis. Whereas pollen analysis provides information about the region, charcoal analysis gives insights into the local vegetation and the effects of human activities. It is crucial for geoarchaeological studies and vegetation reconstruction to have such insight in human impact on vegetation, as it give extra information about species composition, de- forestation, selection of certain species and animal husbandry [12,13]. We aimed to reconstruct the vegetation on a local and regional scale, and to mark the degree of an-

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thropogenic impact and its effect on the forest ecosystem through time in the western Hungarian Alpine foreland.

2. Study Area

The archaeological excavations took place in the Szombathely-Vát section of Main Road No. 86 in Vas County (West Hungary, Fig. 1) in the foreland of the Eastern Alps in the Gyöngyös Plain of the Sopron- Vas Plain [14]. We analysed samples from Lukácsháza, Nemesbőd, Szombathely, Vát, Vép and Zanat. We conducted undisturbed drillings into the alluvium of the Borzó Creek (47^◦ 15’ 22.36” N and 16^◦ 40’ 55.44” ). The area consists of gravel, loamy and loessy sediments and slopes slightly southwards (Fig. 2). The tectonic activity in the area and its uneven sinking may have started at the end of the Pliocene and within the Early Pleistocene. The Répce, Rába and Gyöngyös Rivers border the area to- day. The western part of the area is filled-up with fluvial sediments, the accumulation of which gradually changes in an eastward direction. The avulsion had finished by the end of the Pleistocene. At this time the creek was already occupying its present valley. Solifluction is in- dicated in the gravel layer and in the covering layer, a brown, yellowish-brown glacial loam mixed with gravel.

Both the older and younger gravel layers show a distinct periglacial influence during the Pleistocene with internal cryoturbation forms (polygons, cryoturbation) and various types of surface cryoturbation forms. Due to neotectonic processes and the submergence that took place along the course of River Rába, the gravel cover has become elevated and plateau-like. The vertical dissection of the surface is small, and the landscape is monotonous [14]. The climate of the area is temperate cold, and temperate dry. Annual mean temperature is 9^◦C, annual precipitation is around 600 to 700 mm, mean evaporation and evapotranspiration is 500 to 550 mm. Therefore, the yearly excess water is about 50 to 200 mm, which is drained by streams, and increases the level of ground water [14].

There is no natural vegetation left in the area, but based on remnant natural vegetation patches, it can be assumed that the western Hungarian border area, including the Gyöngyös Plain, is a transitional floral area. Phyto- geographically, the area belongs to the Vas (Castriferre- icum) flora district of the Praenoricum flora region, which is a part of the Pannonian flora range and is a transition between the Alps, the Carpathian Basin, and the Illyricum (the flora range of the western Balkans). To the north, the Small Plain borders the Gyöngyös Plain, and belongs to the Great Hungarian Plain flora region (Eupannonicum). Adjacent to the west is the eastern

Alpine (Noricum) flora district and to the east-southeast the southern Transdanubian (Praeillyricum) flora region (which is part of the western Balkans flora range). De- spite the marked human impact in the region it is clear that the most extensive potential-past forest compositions are alder groves (Carici-Alnetum croaticum), oak-ash- elm grove forests (Querco-Ulmetum), oak and hornbeam forests (Querco robori-Carpinetum), and moss capped oak forests (Querco petraeae-cerris) [14]. Along the marsh- lands and streams the original vegetation contains reed (Sciro-Phragmitetum) and cattail (Typhetum latifoliae).

Two types of brown forest soils developed in the area:

Luvisols (brown forest soil showing clay illuviation processes) and Cambisols (called Ramann-type brown forest soils in the Hungarian Soil Classification System) [14].

Luvisols occur only to the east and north-east of the vil- lage of Vát; around the studied excavations only Cam- bisols occur [15].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Anthracology

Archaeobotanical material was obtained from samples from the archaeological profiles of features and objects (refuse pits, middens, fills and pots) as uniformly 2.7 kg samples [16] according to the German standards [17]. We used a dual floating method according to Gyulai [18] with 0.5 and 0.25 mm sieves. The greatest part of the archaeobotanical material consisted of charcoals. After dry- ing, charcoal fragments were selected and counted. The three-directional sections of charcoal were analysed using a Zeiss Jenapol polarisation optical microscope with magnifications 100x, 200x, and 500x. Identification was carried out using the reference books of Greguss [19] and Schweingruber [20].

3.2. Pollen Analysis

Samples of 1 cm³wet sediment were prepared for pollen analysis using standard acetyl methods [21] and micro- sieving at 10 µm [22]. In order to determine the pollen concentration, the Lycopodium spore tablet method was used [23]. The pollen-rich organic material was mounted on a glass slide bonded in silicone oil. Nikon and Olym- pus polarisation optical microscopes were used for the pollen identification, with magnifications from 600x to 1000x. We counted at least 300 pollen grains of dryland plants in order to have statistically sufficient results.

The identification of pollen and spores was with reference books [24,25] and pollen reference materials at the Uni- versity of Szeged, Department of Geology and Palaeon-

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Figure 1. The location of the archaeological sites in Vas County, West Hungary.

Figure 2. Geomorphological picture of the area with the route of Main Road No. 86.

tology, and at the Palaeontology Library of the Geological Institute of Hungary. Pollen types were identified according to 24, 25, 26 and 27. Percentages of terrestrial pollen taxa, excluding Cyperaceae, were calculated using the sum of all those taxa. Percentages of Cyperaceae, aquatics and pteridophyte spores were calculated relative to the main sum plus the relevant sum for each taxon or taxon group.

Calculations, numerical analyses and drawing of pollen diagrams were performed using Psimpoll 4.26 [28]. Lo- cal pollen assemblage zones (LPAZs) were defined using an optimal splitting of information content [29], zonation being performed using the 20 terrestrial pollen taxa that reached at least 5% in at least one sample.

3.3. Radiocarbon Analysis

The chronological analysis of the Borzó Creek drilling section was based on the radiocarbon dating of three samples.

Since the purpose of the examination was the reconstruction of the environment of the archaeological and historical cultures that settled in the area, the radiocarbon measurements were concentrated on the upper, near-surface part of the undisturbed drilling. Plant remains were sampled from the drilling section for all radiocarbon measurements.

The samples were analyzed in the Radiocarbon Labora- tory of Poznan using the AMS dating method. Table1 presents¹⁴C age determinations along with 2σ ranges for calibrated ages obtained using Calib 6.0 [30] and the Int- cal09 calibration curve [31].

4. Results

4.1. Charcoal Analyses

In total, 72 samples were analysed. Unfortunately, 23 samples did not provide usable results because of bad preservation or overburning of some charcoal fragments.

Two further samples contained deciduous tree fragments that were not identified to genus level. In total, 12 488 charcoal fragments from 47 samples were identified (Ta- ble2). The age of the anthracological samples was deter- mined according to the age of the archaeological objects.

The number of samples and charcoal fragments and the results of the analyses are shown in Fig.3.

The anthracological diagram shows a very strong domi- nance of Quercus charcoal from the Bronze Age [32], and Quercus accounts for 97.8% of the identified charcoal frag- ments. This might be due to the fragmentation of charcoals during the sampling or flotation process during sample processing, but it is also possible that Quercus species were dominant in the surroundings of the former human settlements, and that humans from the Bronze Age pre-

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Table 1. The results of calibrated radiocarbon dates (AMS) from undisturbed drilling cores of alluvium from Borzó Creek.

Depth Lab. Nr. Dated material Conventional age Calibrated age (cal yr BP; Calib6.1.0, Calibrated age

(cm) (¹⁴C-yr BP) 2σ confidence interval rounded at decades) (cal yr BC/AD)

30-32 Poz- 31361 Fragment of a Monocotyledonae 590 +- 30 BP 598 +- 38 cal BP 1352 +- 38 AD Undifferent

74-76 Poz-31362 Phragmites (reed) 2370 +- 35 BP 2407 +- 49 cal BP 457 +- 49 BC 126-128 Poz-31363 Phragmites (reed) 7310 +- 70 BP 8123 +- 73 cal BP 6173 +- 73 BC

Table 2. The number of samples containing charcoal fragments from the archaeological excavations at Main Road No. 86 in Vas County, West Hungary.

Age Archaeological sites Total number of samples

Lukácsháza Nemesbőd Szombathely Vát Vép Zanat

Middle Age 4 3 7

Arpadian Age 2 1 2 1 13 19

Migration Period 1 1

Imperial Period 3 2 1 6

Late Iron Age 3 1 4

Early-middle Iron Age 4 4

Bronze Age 2 2 2 6

Total number of samples 2 7 6 10 7 15 47

Figure 3. Charcoal diagram showing relative frequencies of identified taxa for each studied archaeological age. Circles indicate a low number of charcoal fragments.

ferred this type of wood. People use different wood types for their various aims according to their needs [33]. The wood of Quercus has the best heating power [34,35], although it had been utilised for construction purposes as well due to its length and firmness [36]. It seems un- likely that only oak occurred in the forests, thus these charcoal fragments cannot reflect the original forest com-

position. Charcoals derived from the Arpadian and Middle Ages show a very slightly larger heterogeneity with Frax- inus, Ulmus, Fagus and Prunus avium (Arpadian age) and Fraxinus, Ulmus and Acer (Medieval). The occurrence of Prunus avium is very significant since it is a common el- ement in Carpinus and Quercus forests that occur in the mountain zone between 400 and 600 metres asl.

4.2. Pollen Analyses

52 samples from the core of Borzó Creek were analysed palynologically. Pollen preservation was medium, except for the upper 30 cm where no pollen occurred. The vegetation changes that are reflected in the pollen material primarily correspond to changes in the regional vegetation [37,38], while the origin of the pollen grains is influ- enced by the shape of the valley and the water regime of the creeks [39].

The first pollen zone (LPAZ a) covers a core developed between 3.0 and 1.8 m (Figs.4, 5). The dominant pollen types originate mostly from coniferous plants (Pi- nus, Picea, Juniperus), and, additionally, the pollen of Salix, Alnus and Betula occur. This zone can be di- vided into two subzones. The subzone between 3.0 and 2.2 m correlates to the Weichselian Late Glacial, and the subzone between 2.2 and 1.8 m correlates to the end of Pleistocene and beginning of the Holocene. The

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amount of pine pollen dominates (30-50%), but due to pine’s high pollen production, its local presence can not be definitely concluded [40, 41]. The amount of pollen from herbs, especially Gramineae, Artemisia species and Chenopodiaceae is very high, and this clearly indicates tundra and steppe vegetation types. In this open vegeta- tion, arboreal plants (Pinus mugo, Picea, Juniperus, Be- tula nana, B. pubescens, Alnus viridis) could have been present only in small vegetation patches. These vegetation types gradually would have changed during the Late Glacial. The values of pollen of herbaceous plants characteristic of open vegetation types first decrease below 50% (approximately at a depth 2.2 m) then below 20% (at 1.8 m). At the same time the ratio of coniferous plants increases (from 50% at a depth 2.2 m to 70% at a depth 1.8 m) so markedly that on the basis of this, we can clearly deduce the presence of local pine forests, with proba- bly Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) dominance. These pine forests would have been mixed with Alnus, Betula and Salix. However, Alnus, Betula and Salix may also have occurred in wetland habitats apart from these pine forests.

At the beginning of the Holocene (LPAZ b) thermo- and mesophilous deciduous trees expanded, including Quer- cus, Ulmus, Fraxinus, and shrubs such as Corylus, which invaded the pine/birch forests and changed the charac- ter of the dryland forests [42–44]. Due to the warmer climate, the coniferous elements slowly disappeared from the vegetation, and a closely structured deciduous grove forest took its place in the valley. The pollen content of our samples suggests that a hardwood forest consist- ing of Quercus, Ulmus and Fraxinus existed then. At a higher altitude, on drier soils, closed Quercus forests may have evolved during this period of time with significant Corylus shrub presence. Based on the significant dom- inance of Corylus and Clematis vitalba it is conceivable that human communities might have had a significant effect on the forest environment during the Mesolithic [45–

49]. Notably, the dominance of pollen from Corylus and a cyclic decrease in Quercus pollen has also been ob- served at many other locations in the Carpathian Basin between 7000 and 6000 BC [3,43,50–52]. Studies from different parts of the world [53, 54] indicate that during the Mesolithic hunter-gatherer societies employed forest- burning for many purposes (e.g. hunting, to expand the edge zone, to create camp sites and to detour the animal herds to be hunted) [45,55–58]. This process aided signif- icantly to the extension of photophilous Corylus, which oc- curs predominantly along forest margins [45,47]. Although there are no archaeobotanical data available from Hun- garian Mesolithic sites regarding the gathering of Corylus, it seems that there is a connection between the gathering strategies observed at western European Mesolithic sites

and the increase in forest burning/Corylus pollen quan- tity [45].

At the level of the Early Neolithic (approximately at 120 cm, LPAZ c), the Early Holocene forests seem to have changed significantly. The amount of pollen from weeds (e.g. Plantago, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae) indi- cates treading, disturbance, animal grazing, and the appearance of pollen from cereals occurs at this level. These changes can be attributed to increasing human impacts on vegetation during Neolithisation. The considerable indi- cation of human impact at around 100 cm can be correlated (unfortunately without radiocarbon data) with the Middle Neolithic and the development of the Transdanubian Lin- ear Pottery culture. Its age has been established as between 5500-5000 cal BC by radiocarbon dates from other sites in Transdanubia [43,59]. Our data, however, do not allow a distinction between the Neolithic, the Copper and the Bronze Age. Therefore, we define a core trajectory between 1.2 and 0.8 m (LPAZ c) as a Prehistoric agricultural and animal husbandry horizon. In this horizon the pollen ratio of Fagus and Carpinus increases and obtains a high significance. On the basis of the radiocarbon-dated Late Glacial and Early Holocene pollen data of Lake Balaton and Nagybárkány [60–63] and on the charcoal data of Bá- torliget in the Great Hungarian Plain [42], it may be hy- pothesized that a refugium of Fagus existed in the Trans- danubian region. This is in contrast with the one-centered beech colonisation model [64,65]. The appearance of Fa- gus (and Carpinus) pollen in Transdanubia and the North Hungarian Mountain Range is much earlier than would be expected under the beech colonisation model. According to our opinion, the refugium of Fagus at the end of the glacial period probably consisted of many diffuse patches from the foreland of the Alps in Slovenia through the foreland of the Eastern Alps, all the way to the southern foreland of the Transdanubian Mountain Range [61]. These data are well correlated with the results of pollen analyses carried out on the Austrian side of the Eastern Alps foreland and in Burgenland [66]. The next pollen zone (from 80 cm, LPAZ d) indicates that such vegetation as evolved during the Neolithic and prevailed until the second half of the Iron Age was significantly affected by humans, and un- derwent changes in the 5th century BC. Pollen values for deciduous trees drastically decrease in the horizon correlated with this age (LPAZ d), and values of pollen types from herbaceous plants increase strongly (from 80 cm to- wards the surface). The presence of pollen attributable to cereals and the dominance of pollen from weeds such as Plantago, Polygonum, Artemisia, and Chenopodium in- dicate expansion of species of these genera in clearings, treaded areas, cultivated lands, roads and grazing fields.

Simultaneously, the pollen values of Pinus and Juniperus

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Figure 4. Arboreal pollen types of the Borzó Creek section (modified after [39]).

Figure 5. Non-arboreal pollen types of the Borzó Creek section (modified after [39]).

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increase. These changes can be correlated to the development of Ancient agriculture [67,68] during the late Iron Age and the Imperial period, such that spread into Southern, Central and Western Europe. Thus, the high ratio of pine pollen grains was not necessarily caused by climatic changes but rather should reflect human impacts on the deciduous forests in Europe. By the cutting of these forests the ratio of pine pollen grains would have increased relatively in the air. The changes observed in the section are well-consistent with the changes in the Late Iron Age and in the Imperial Period of the sections of Velem and Mezőlak [59], and also with the forest cut- tings around the Fertő Lake starting with the settlement of the Celts [69,70].

The presence of Vitis and Juglans in the Late Iron Age horizon is very conspicuous since these plants were vital parts of the Late Iron Age garden culture [49]. It fur- thermore supports the theory that the Submediterranean garden culture based on Triticum, Vitis and Juglans (and Castanea) was widespread in the Transdanubian region in the Imperial period [49] and originated from the Celtic garden culture in the vicinity of Szombathely (Savaria).

After the Imperial period, the pollen of Juglans disap- peared and the amount of cereals decreased. The values of pollen from deciduous trees including Betula, Salix, Alnus and Carpinus increased. Pollen from weeds prevailed and indicates treading and animal grazing. These changes de- note a change in agriculture. Animal husbandry became more characteristic and the use of the alluvium ceased.

Fast growing trees, used for several purposes, prevailed at alluvial fans. Based on the pollen compositions, the intensive land use of the area now decreased, and extensive animal keeping became prominent during the Migra- tion Period [71–75]. The same tendency continued during the Medieval pollen horizon. The values of Quercus and Carpinus are stable and the pollen composition indicates that meadows, fields, ploughed fields, forests and groves occurred simultaneously in the study area, probably in a mosaic pattern. The pollen content in the upper 30 cm of the sediments is so poor that it was not possible to reconstruct vegetation changes after the Medieval Period.

4.3. Conclusions

Anthracological and pollen analytical studies from the area of the rescue excavation of Main Road No. 86 in West Hungary, Vas County, allowed the reconstruction and chronology of vegetation changes. According to pollen analytical results Quercus-Ulmus-Tilia-dominated forests developed during the Holocene. Riverine taxa included predominantly Alnus and Salix. From the be- ginning of the Neolithic, Fagus and Carpinus expanded,

as well as herbaceous plants typical for agriculture and animal grazing. Juglans and Vitis appeared in the Iron Age and indicate horticulture, such that supports the theory of the Submediterranean garden culture which was widespread in the Transdanubian region during the Impe- rial Period [49] originating from the Celtic garden culture in the vicinity of Szombathely. The anthracological ma- terial indicates an absolute dominance of Quercus from the Bronze Age. Probably Quercus species were the most important wood types in the forest stand but we have to take into consideration that humans preferably would have used oak. The most significant changes to the vegetation cover started in the Late Iron Age: in the sediments cor- relating to this period the pollen amount from arboreal species decreased drastically and herbaceous plants typical for cleared, grazed and trampled areas increased next to cereal pollens. During the Imperial Period arboreal species decreased prominently whereas the amounts of herbaceous plants and pine trees increased. This corre- sponds to the development of agriculture in the Late Iron Age and the Imperial Period [67,68] when deciduous trees were felled in order to have large ploughed lands for plant cultivation. Thus, probably the high amount of pollen from pine was not caused by climatic change but by human activity. During the Migration Period and Arpadian Age the numbers of arboreal species increased slightly, although herbaceous plants dominated. The charcoal assemblage indicates a Quercus-Fraxinus-Ulmus gallery forest; at higher altitudes Fagus trees may have grown.

The presence of Prunus avium charcoal is very important since it can be found in Querco petreae/Querco robori- Carpinetum forests in the Transdanubian region. Based on the charcoal results, Quercus-Fraxinus-Ulmus-dominated forest type surrounded human settlements during the Late Medieval Period as well. Probably a mosaic-like environment of ploughed fields, pastures, and forest patches characterised the study area.

Acknowledgements

We express our gratitude to Gábor Ilon, archaeologist, and to the excavators of the archaeological sites of Main Road No. 86. This study was financed by the project TÁMOP- 4.2.2/B-10/1-2010-0012.

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