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There are convincing arguments that theoretical foundations of IL need to be strengthened. While there is an abundance of empirical studies on IL and it is RIWHQXVHGIRUODEHOOLQJD¿HOGRIDFWLYLWLHVDSURIHVVLRQDOSUDFWLFHRUSROL- F\PDNLQJDFWLYLW\PRUHDWWHQWLRQVKRXOGEHJLYHQWRLWVWKHRU\3LOHURW 7KHODFNRIDXQL¿HGWKHRU\RI,/DQGLWVGH¿QLWLRQEDVHGRQO\RQDFRPPRQ pragmatic agreement and formulated in functionalistic terms also reinforces WKLVGHPDQGâSLUDQHF%DQHN=RULFDDQG.RV7KHUHIRUHFOHDULQJWKH UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQUHVHDUFKDQGSUDFWLFHLVDSHUSHWXDOFKDOOHQJH$KDURQ\HW DOERWKIRU,/LQJHQHUDODQGIRULWVDSSOLFDWLRQWRHGXFDWLRQ
It is reasonable to suggest that discourses on education and on IL are closely FRQQHFWHGWRHDFKRWKHUDQGVFKRROLVRQHRIWKHLQIRUPDWLRQODQGVFDSHVFRP- PXQLFDWLYHVSDFHVZLWKLQZKLFK,/RFFXUV/OR\G7KLVLVXQGHUOLQHG DPRQJRWKHUVE\WKHFODVVLFDOGH¿QLWLRQRILQIRUPDWLRQOLWHUDF\WKDWVWUHVVHVLWV connection to lifelong learning and supposes that information literate people KDYHOHDUQHGKRZWROHDUQ$/$
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Thirdly, it seems to be feasible that information theory and the theory of OHDUQLQJDUHFRQYHUJLQJDVZHFDQDFFHSWWKHLGHDWKDWOHDUQLQJZLWKLQIRUPD- tion is authentic learning, thus the skills and abilities required of information OLWHUDWHSHUVRQVDUHLQGLVSHQVDEOHIRUVXFFHVVIXOOHDUQLQJ$$6/:H DOVRFDQVKDUHWKHEHOLHIDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKLVLGHDWKDW,/LVDOVRWKHRXWFRPHRI OHDUQLQJHYHQWKRXJKLWLVRIWHQDSSURDFKHGDVDQREMHFWRIWHDFKLQJ/LPEHUJ 6XQGLQDQG7DOMD
$VLQGLFDWHGDERYHLQIRUPDWLRQOLWHUDF\VKRXOGSOD\DVLJQL¿FDQWUROHLQ HGXFDWLRQEXWWKHQHFHVVLW\IRU,/LQWKHSUH,QWHUQHWHUDZDVPDLQO\DGYRFDWHG by library and information professionals, and it found little echo in schools and RWKHUHGXFDWLRQDOLQVWLWXWLRQV%DZGHQDQG5RELQVRQ$OLNHO\UHDVRQ IRUWKLVZDVWKDW,/FRQFHSWVZHUHXQZLWWLQJO\QDUURZIRURWKHUSURIHVVLRQDOV )UHHEXUJ8QGHUWKHVHFLUFXPVWDQFHVLWLVIUHTXHQWO\DQGDOPRVWH[FOX- sively used to denote the techniques and skills needed for identifying, locating, DQGDFFHVVLQJLQIRUPDWLRQUHVRXUFHVE\XVLQJLQIRUPDWLRQWRROV$/$
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,WLVDOVRFOHDUWKDWPRVWQHZPRGHOVRI,/VKDUHFRQVWUXFWLYLVWYLHZVRQ WHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJE\DUJXLQJWKDWOHDUQLQJLVDQH[SHULHQWLDODQGHPSRZ- HULQJSURFHVV7KH\DOVRSRVLWWKDWOHDUQLQJLVH[SHULHQWLDOLQWKHZD\WKDWLW involves the continuous building, amending and eventually transforming of SUHYLRXVNQRZOHGJHVWUXFWXUHV:DOWRQDQG&OHODQG
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Phenomenographic approaches
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In phenomenographic research, data is collected through open questions to H[SORUHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶H[SHULHQFHVRIDSKHQRPHQRQQRWWKHUHVHDUFKHUV¶SHU- FHSWLRQ5DWKHUWKDQDVNLQJTXHVWLRQVDERXWZK\VRPHWKLQJKDSSHQVTXHVWLRQV IRFXVRQKRZDQGZKDWWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVGRDQGKRZWKH\IHHODERXWLW0RUULVRQ DQG6HFNHU
The concept of communities is a key concept of phenomenographic ap- SURDFKHV,WFDQEHGH¿QHGDVDVHWRIVKDUHGUHODWLRQVWKDWUHVLGHVLQWKHLPDJL- nations of the members, they have a shared identity, intentions, and dispositions
&ODUNH,QHGXFDWLRQDOVHWWLQJVZHVSHDNDERXWOHDUQLQJFRPPXQLWLHV Information landscapes, mentioned earlier in this article are a “productive DQDORJ\ IRU WKLQNLQJ DERXW KRZ WR GHVFULEH LQIRUPDWLRQ LQ FRQWH[W´ :KLW- ZRUWKSDQGFDQEHGHVFULEHGDV³WKHFRPPXQLFDWLYHVSDFHVWKDWDUH FUHDWHGE\SHRSOHZKRFRSDUWLFLSDWHLQD¿HOGRISUDFWLFH´/OR\GS It should to be added that information landscapes, created through the enact- PHQWRISUDFWLFHDQGLWVVRFLRPDWHULDODQGV\PEROLFHOHPHQWVGH¿QHWKHZD\V RINQRZLQJ/OR\G
Information practice consists of “information-related activities and skills, FRQVWLWXWHGMXVWL¿HGDQGRUJDQL]HGWKURXJKWKHDUUDQJHPHQWVRIDVRFLDOVLWH DQGPHGLDWHGVRFLDOO\DQGPDWHULDOO\ZLWKWKHDLPRISURGXFLQJVKDUHGXQGHU- VWDQGLQJDQGPXWXDODJUHHPHQWDERXWZD\VRINQRZLQJDQGUHFRJQL]LQJKRZ performance is enacted, enabled and constrained in collective situated action”
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Although originating in higher education, the seven faces model of infor- PDWLRQOLWHUDF\E\%UXFH±DOVRURRWHGLQSKHQRPHQRJUDSK\EDVHGUH- VHDUFK±PLUURUVDIXOOUDQJHRIZD\VKRZLQIRUPDWLRQOLWHUDF\LVH[SHULHQFHG WKXVVKRZLQJZKLFKIRUPVRILQIRUPDWLRQOLWHUDF\DUHUHOHYDQWWRGL൵HUHQWVLWX- DWLRQVWKXVDSSOLFDEOHWRVFKRROVHWWLQJV7KLVPRGHOHQXPHUDWHVWKHIROORZLQJ
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The sociocultural perspective
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The sociocultural perspective emphasises the situated nature of learning and IRFXVHVRQWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQLQGLYLGXDOVDQGYDULRXVIRUPVRIFROOHF- WLYHSUDFWLFHVWKDWFDQEHGH¿QHGDVZD\VRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGGRLQJWKLQJV LQWKHZRUOG±LQRWKHUZRUGV±VRFLDOO\VWUXFWXUHGDQGVWUXFWXULQJSDWWHUQVDQG UHVRXUFHVWKDWIRUPWKHFRUHRIHYHU\GD\OLIHDFWLYLWLHV7KRUQH6XFK SUDFWLFHVDUHHPERGLHGLQFRPPXQLWLHVRISUDFWLFHWKDWFDQEHGH¿QHGDVVHWV of relations among persons, activities, other communities of practice and the ZRUOG/HWXVDGGWKDWFRPPXQLWLHVRISUDFWLFHDUHJURXSVRISHRSOHVKDULQJ VLPLODUJRDOVDQGLQWHUHVWVLQSXUVXLWRIZKLFKWKH\HPSOR\FRPPRQSUDFWLFHV ZRUNZLWKWKHVDPHWRROVDQGXVHDFRPPRQODQJXDJH,QDFRPPXQLW\RISUDF- WLFHZHOHDUQQRWRQO\WKHUXOHVRIWKHDFWXDOSHUIRUPDQFHRISUDFWLFHEXWLQIRU- PDWLRQRQGHWHUPLQLQJZKDWSUDFWLFHVDQGNQRZOHGJHDUHGHHPHGOHJLWLPDWH 7KLVWDFLWLQIRUPDWLRQLVFRGHGDQGGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHFRPPXQLW\UHÀHFWLQJLWV KLVWRU\DVVXPSWLRQVEHOLHIVYDOXHVDQGUXOHV/OR\G
,QWKHSURFHVVRIOHDUQLQJZHLQWHUDFWZLWKFXOWXUDOO\FRQVWUXFWHGWRROVRISUDF- tice, such as objects, signs, symbols, language, and technologies, therefore the VRFLRFXOWXUDOWKHRU\IRFXVHVRQWRROEDVHG,/SUDFWLFHVQRWFRQIRXQGHGZLWK VNLOOEDVHGRQHVEXWGRWKLVZLWKLQWKHFRQWH[WRIOHDUQLQJFRPPXQLWLHV$V OHDUQLQJLVFRQQHFWHGWRVSHFL¿FVLWXDWLRQVDQGSUDFWLFHVIROORZLQJVRFLRFXO- WXUDODSSURDFKHVPHDQVTXHVWLRQLQJWKHJHQHULFQDWXUHRIOHDUQLQJ,//LPEHUJ 6XQGLQDQG7DOMD:KLOHDFFHSWLQJWKHEURDGIUDPHZRUNRIVRFLDOO\FRQ- WH[WXDOLVHGOHDUQLQJH[SHULHQFHWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHPD\KHOSLQGHYHORSLQJHGX- FDWLRQDOSUDFWLFHVWKDWPRYHWKHSHUFHSWLRQVDQGH[SHULHQFHVRIWKHLQGLYLGXDO OHDUQHUWRWKHFHQWUHRIHGXFDWLRQDOSUDFWLFH7DOMDDQG/OR\G
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both for phenomenographic approaches and the sociocultural perspective, even LIWKH\DUHVHHQIURPVOLJKWO\GL൵HUHQWSRLQWVRIYLHZ
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The discourse analytic perspective
The central argument of discourse analysis is that language is central to social OLIHDQGVRLWVVWXG\SURYLGHVDNH\WRVRFLDOIXQFWLRQLQJ:DOWRQDQG&OHODQG 7KHUHLVDVLPLODULW\EHWZHHQWKHVRFLRFXOWXUDODQGWKHGLVFRXUVHDQDO\WLF perspectives because they both see learning as a social activity that uses tools, SUDFWLFHVDQGFRQGLWLRQVIRUPHDQLQJPDNLQJ3LOHURW7KHGLVFRXUVH analytic perspective focuses on identifying broad historical information literacy discourses, leading to research outcomes for understanding variation LQ LQWHUSUHWLYH UHSHUWRLUHV ,W VKRZV WKDW ,/ LV FRQVWUXFWHG GL൵HUHQWO\ LQ GL൵HUHQWFRQYHUVDWLRQDOFRQWH[WV'LVFRXUVHDQDO\VWVGRQRWDFFHSWLQIRUPDWLRQ competences as uncontested phenomena thus they study the interpretive UHSHUWRLUHVWKURXJKZKLFKSHRSOHJLYHPHDQLQJVWRLQIRUPDWLRQFRPSHWHQFHV DQG SUDFWLFHV 7KH\ GH¿QH GLVFRXUVHV DV V\VWHPV RI VWDWHPHQWV LH VHWV RI LQWHUOLQNHGFODLPVDVVXPSWLRQVDQGPHDQLQJV:HDUHXVHUVRIDOUHDG\H[LVWLQJ GLVFRXUVHV H[SUHVVLRQV DQG FRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQV ZH DFFHSW LPSOLFLW FODLPV DERXWWKHQDWXUHRILQIRUPDWLRQHYHQLIZHZRXOGQRWQHFHVVDULO\UHDGLO\DFFHSW WKHPDVWUXWKIXORUYDOLGLIZHFRXOGFRQVFLRXVO\VFUXWLQLVHWKHP/LPEHUJ 6XQGLQDQG7DOMD
,QJHQHUDOLWFDQEHVDLGWKDWWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHDOVRVKDUHVVHYHUDOYLHZVZLWK the above approaches.
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GL൵HUHQWLQVLJKWVLQWRLQIRUPDWLRQOLWHUDF\ on both empirical and theoretical OHYHOVZLWKRXWFRQWUDGLFWLQJHDFKRWKHU7KH\R൵HUWKHRUHWLFDOWRROVIRUVWXG\LQJ KRZ QHZ WHFKQRORJLHV DQG GLJLWDO PHGLD HVSHFLDOO\ VRFLDO PHGLD UHVKDSH conditions for learning in contemporary society. Both phenomenographic DQGVRFLRFXOWXUDOWKHRULHVDUHH[SOLFLWO\JURXQGHGLQWKHRULHVRIOHDUQLQJWKXV they strengthen the pedagogical nature of information literacy. In doing this, WKH VRFLRFXOWXUDO SHUVSHFWLYH LV PHGLDWHG E\ GLJLWDO DQG RWKHU WRROV ZKLOH phenomenography and discourse analysis are more directly interested in DQDO\VLQJH[SHULHQFHVDQGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVQRWVSHFL¿FDOO\EDVHGRQWKHRUHWLFDO DVVXPSWLRQVDERXWWKHXVHRIYDULRXVWRROV/LPEHUJ6XQGLQDQG7DOMD :KHQ XQGHUOLQLQJ WKDW KXPDQ UHDOLWLHV DUH PDLQO\ VRFLDOO\ FRQVWUXFWHG ZH PLJKWEHDZDUHRIFULWLFLVPVRIVRFLDOFRQVWUXFWLRQLVWYLHZVZKLFKVXJJHVWWKDW NQRZOHGJHVKRXOGQRWEHVHSDUDWHGIURPLWVPHGLXPLHKXPDQLQGLYLGXDO FRQVFLRXVQHVVZKHUHFRQVWUXFWLRQPD\WDNHSODFH3DOPDUX$OWKRXJK WKLVQHHGKDVEHHQUHVRQDWHGLQWKHVRFLRFXOWXUDOSHUVSHFWLYHWKHMXVWL¿FDWLRQRI WKLVZDUQLQJPLJKWEHDVXEMHFWRIIXUWKHUH[DPLQDWLRQHVSHFLDOO\LIZHDFFHSW OHDUQLQJLVLQFRQFHLYDEOHZLWKRXWOHDUQHUV¶H[LVWLQJNQRZOHGJHLHWKH\VWDUW ZLWKZKDWLVNQRZQDQGEHFRPHPRUHFRQVFLRXVRIZKDWLVQRWNQRZQZKLOVW OHDUQLQJ6DOLVEXU\DQG.DUDVPDQLV
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