RE CE NT P O PU LA TI O N M OV EM EN TS IN T HE E A ST EU RO PE A N C O U N TR IE S
RECENT
POPULATION MOVEMENTS
IN TIE
EAST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
AIADÍMAI H IM , BUDAPEST
R E C E N T P O P U L A T I O N M O V E M E N T S I N T H E E A S T E U R O P E A N C O U N T R I E S Studies in Geography in Hungary, 7 Edited by B. Sárfalvi
The authors of this hook have set them
selves the task of examining how in
dustrialization of the mid-twentieth century influences the agricultural population in the East European coun
tries. The problems raised have been approached from diverse points of view. For example, the features of social restratification havo been dis
cussed by Yugoslavian investigators in three studies dealing with the con
ditions o f Croatia, Slovenia and the Adriatic coast, respectively. Two pa
pers by Soviet geographers report on the relationship between industriali
zation and urbanization processes.
Recent demographic changes in the villages of Poland are described by an expert of the related branch of science, while problems of inter-territorial mi
gration in Hungary by a British special
ist. Formation of new industrial centres in Hungary and concomitant changes in her rural settlements are specially discussed by two competent papers in the book. The concluding study is an attempt to draw a sketchy outline of the historical and socio-economic restratification of Europe.
Settlement geographers, demogra
phers, etc. will certainly find useful material in the book as it supplies food for thought to everybody inter
ested in the post-war development of the East and Middle European socia
list countries.
A K A D É M I A I K I A D Ó
Publishing House o f the Hungarian Academy o f Sciences
RECENT POPULATION MOVEMENTS IN THE EAST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
STUDIES IN GEOGRAPHY IN H U N G A R Y , 7 G eographical R esearch I n s titu te
H ungarian A cadem y of Sciences, B udapest
Chief editor:
M. PÉ C SI
E ditorial b o a rd :
Á. B O R A I, GY. E N Y E D I, B. S Á R F A L V I and J . S Z IL Á R D
RECENT POPULATION
MOVEMENTS IN THE EAST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
E d ited by B É L A SÁRFALVI
AKADÉMIAI KIADÓ, BUDAPEST 1970
T e x t revised by P hilip E. Uren
C h a irm a n , D ep t. G eo g r.
C a rle to n U n iv e rs ity , O t t a w a
@ Akadémiai K iadó, B udapest 1970
P r in te d in H u n g a r y
CONTENTS •
P okshishevski, V. V.
In d u s tria l developm ent and u rb a n - ru ra l red istrib u tio n of population: th e e x p eri
ence of the Soviet U nion 7
Crkvencic, I.
T he effects of industrialization on th e local distribution of m anpow er in C roatia 13 KlemenŐiÖ, VI.
T he m igration of population and th e in d u strializatio n of Slovenia 21 F r iga no vie, Ml.
T he influence of socio-economic changes on th e m igration and stru ctu re of th e ru ral
p o p u latio n in th e A driatic region of C roatia 29
D obrow olska, M.
D em ographic and social changes in p o st-w ar Polish villages 35 C om pton, P.
A stochastic model for in te r-te rrito ria l m igration in H ungary 43 B oros, F.
G eographical aspects of D unaújváros 55
K olta, J .
T he effect of th e regrouping of p o p u latio n according to occupation on th e
functions of ru ra l settlem ents 65
Pivovarov, Y u. L.
Com m uting as an aspect of p o p u la tio n geography in the socialist countries 73 S árfalvi, B.
H istorical and geographical ty p es of socio-economic restratification in E u ro p e 77
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND URBAN-RURAL
REDISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION: THE E X PE R IE N C E OF THE SOVIET UNION
by
V. V. P O K S H I S H E Y S K I
1. The Soviet conception of h u m a n geography affirms th a t th e p a t t e r n of settle
m e n t is defined b y th e ch a rac te r a n d th e sp a tia l organization of produ ctio n . Of course th ere is no exact correlation; th e geography of services and other non-m aterial functions always h as an im p o rta n t influence on th e territo ria l d istrib u tio n of population. H ow ever, in all p a r ts of any given c o u n try , these n o n-m aterial facto rs m odify th e correlation b etw een geography of production an d geography of population in th e sam e degree.1
2. Thus, it w ould seem possible to find th e correlation, w ith som e v ariations, b etw een indices of industrial gro w th and th e increase of u rb a n population.
F u rth erm o re , we m ay expect th is relationship to apply in all t h e m ajo r te rr i
to ria l u nits w ith in each co u n try . If this dependence can be d e te rm in e d , it m ay c o n stitu te a v e ry im p o rta n t to o l of prognosis fo r planning p u rp o ses by giving us approxim ate, b u t nevertheless fairly a c c u ra te , estim ates of th e ex ten t to w hich th e u rb a n population of a given region will increase w ith a given grow th of ind u stry .
The purpose of th is paper is to analyse th e possibility of su ch a correlation a n d to determ ine its necessary conditions using d a ta for th e U S S R .
3. L et us d esignate th e volum e of in d u strial production a t th e beginning of th e tim e period b y P 0, th e volum e a t th e end of it b y P v the u r b a n population
U P
b y j Uno and Ul T hen we m ay w rite: . 1 = k. —1 where “k ” is a coefficient
U P
u o 1 o
indicating th e ra tio of p ro d u ctio n grow th to population in crease.1 2 P 0 and P x are expessed in term s of gross v alu e of in d u stria l production, th is being th e in d ex m ost used in economic sta tistic s of th e U S S R .3
W e assum e for th e sake of sim plicity t h a t all industries are co n c en trate d only in urban places and t h a t all population em ployed in in d u s tr y lives in th ese u rb a n places. L ate r we will note th e corrections n e c e ssita te d b y th is sim plification.
1 Below in p o in t 7 a correction will be m ade for te r rito ria l units w ith e x tre m e ly difficult conditions of íiving. These corrections are needed, p e rh a p s, only for th e U S S R and not for o th e r socialist countries of Europe.
2 T he value “k ” is associated in d ire c tly w ith th e g ro w th of labour p ro d u c tiv ity . I t is in te re st
ing t h a t th e index of in d u strial lab o u r p ro d u c tiv ity fo r 1965 is 3-72 (1940 = 1); in construction th e index is 3-68, in railw ay tra n s p o rt, 2-96. The values 3-72 and 3-68 a re v e ry near to th e v alu e of 3-8 for “k ” estim ated in th e te x t. B u t th e connection betw een th e m is not direct an d th is “ quasi-coincidence” should n o t be o v errated .
3 The grow th of in d u strial p ro d u ctio n m ay also be estim ated by th e v alu e o f added produc
tion. If we were to use for this purpose th e num ber of em ployed persons, i t w o u ld be necessary to m ake corrections to changes in in d u s tria l lab o u r p roductivity.
7
T he sources for th e fu rth e r estim ates are th e d a ta of th e 1959 Census Volum e,
“ U S S R ” , and th e S ta tis tic a l A nnual, “ N ational E c o n o m y of USSR in 1965” . 4. In th e years 1940—1965 th e v o lu m e of gross p ro d u c tio n of in d u stries in U SSR increased alm o st 8 tim es, th e p ro d u ctio n of 1965 being 791 p er cent of t h a t of 1940. F o r alm ost th e sam e period, J a n u a r y 17, 1939—J a n u a r y 1, 1966, th e u rb a n p o p u la tio n increased from 60’4 to 1 2 4 -8 mill, persons, i.e.
2'07 tim es. Thus th e a p p ro x im a te v a lu e of th e “/c” for th e USSR as a w hole is:
. P i . U x Pn ’ Un
7-91
2J)7 3-8
5. In Tables 1 a n d 2 th e ratios ^2- an d — Pn Un
are checked for: (1) th e U nion R ep u b licso f th e U SSR, excluding those occupied b y G erm an-N azi tro o p s during W o rld W a r II ; (2) t h e A utonom ous S oviet R epublics, also excluding th e ones in w hich th e ev en ts of th e w ar period m ight h av e caused a considerable d eviation.4
Ta b l k 1
U n io n R e p u b lic s
U r b a n p o p u la tio n
(in m ill, p ers.) R a t i o Ux u 0
In crea se o f gross in d u s tria l p ro d u c tio n
fo r 1940-1965
p,/p„
R a tio Pi . P. ' u 0 17. J a n . 1939
(tf.)
1. J a n . 1966 ( tfi)
R ussian S F S R 36-30 75-07 2-05 7-15 3-5
U zbek SSR 1-47 3-73 2-54 6-30 2-5
K azakh SSR 1-69 5-79 3-42 12-01 3-5
G eorgian SSR 1-07 2-14 2-00 5-47 2-7
A zerbaijan SSR 1-16 2-33 2-00 4-02 2-0
K irghiz SSR 0-27 1-02 3-79 10-36 2-7
T ad jik SSR 0-25 0-92 3-57 6-64 1-9
A rm enian SSR 0-37 1-21 3-18 12-36 3-9
T urkm en SSR 0-42 0-94 2-23 4-51 2-0
In T ab le 1, th e v a lu e “k ” in th e la s t colum n v arie s from T9 to 3-9, i.e. is alm ost everyw here low er th a n th e a v e rag e value c o m p u te d for the U S S R as a whole. This m ay be easily explained b y th e fact th a t in th o s e western S o v ie t R e
publics w hich joined th e USSR la te r, a n d are no t in clu d ed in Table 1, th e ratio
, P l A U i
betw een and —— w as higher b ecau se a t th e tim e of reunion th ey h a d not 4 o . . U o
v ery in d u strialized u rb a n places. T h u s, th e grow th of industrial p o te n tia l in th e u rb a n places of th e s e republics to o k place w ith o u t g re a t m igration from th e ru ra l areas b y th e tra n sfe r of people em ployed in com m erce, in h a n d ic ra ft
‘ T he sm aller te rrito ria l u n its (“ oblasts” in R S F S R , U k ra in ia n S S R , etc.) are n o t su itab le a n aly sin g th e ratio be
th e period u n d er stu d y .
P U
for a n aly sin g th e ratio b etw een 1 and because th eir lim its changed several tu n es d u rin
■* n U0
8
industries and o th e r such p u rsu its to work in th e big plan ts w ith in th e u rb a n centre itself.5 *
Ta b l e 2
(indices as in T able 1: Uj and U 0 in thousands)
A u to n o m o u s re p u b lic s U. U, Py
P. k
U r b a n p o p u la tio n
(p er c e n t) 1939 | 1966
B ashkir ASSR 540 1672 3-10 26-00 8-4 17 38
T a ta r ASSR 614 1486 2-39 17-00 7-1 21 42
U d m u rt ASSR 312 733 2-29 12-26 5-3 26 44
Y ak u t ASSR 112 352 3-18 10-23 4-8 27 49
Chuvash ASSR 131 368 2-81 12-98 4-6 12 24
Mari ASSR 76 237 3-10 12-41 4-0 13 28
D aghestan A SSR 220 460 2-10 5-91 2-8 22 30
B u ry a t ASSR 167 334 2-00 4-98 2-5 31 41
M ordvinian A SSR 82 297 3-62 7-08 2-0 7 18
A bkhazian ASSR 88 188 2-14 4-09 1-9 28 37
N akhichevan A SSR 23 46 2-00 3-08 1-0 16 30
A djar ASSR 76 138 1-82 2-28 1-3 38 45
K arak alp ak A SSR 58 197 3-34 3-10 0-9 12 27
Kom i ASSR 2!) 624 21-40 10-78 0-5 9 59
The values of coefficient “ A” v a ry in T able 2 m ore th a n in Table 1, from 0'5 to 8‘4, an d w ith this v a ria tio n it is im possible to speak of a stab le degree of dependence. T here are even inversions, A <C 1, i.e. th e g row th of u rb a n p o p u la
tion is faster th a n th e increase of in d u strial p roduction, especially in th e Kom i ASSR.
6. As a gen eral conclusion from Table 2 w e m ay n o te t h a t (1) in sm all territo ries the deviation of “A” m ay be m ore th a n in big ones; (2) th e m ag n i
tu d e of th e values of “k ” u n d o u b ted ly depends to a great degree on th e c h a r
ac te r of econom ic developm ent, p artic u la rly th e com position of industries.
7. The second conclusion is especially im p o rta n t, and is easy to confirm . The value of “ A” is highest in th e republics w ith industries abso rb in g th e le a st m anpow er, such as petrochem ical and chem ical industries in th e B ashkir an d T a ta r A utonom ous Republics, or w here th e v olum e of th e p ro d u c ts is very high, and in the d iam o n d and gold in d u stries of th e Y a k u t ASSR, o r w here m anufac
tu rin g is highly m echanized an d au to m ated as in th e m achine building of th e Chuvash and U d m u rt A utonom ous R epublics. I t is also v ery im p o rta n t w here growing in d u stries are located outside u rb a n places; for exam ple, m an y of th e gold m ines in th e A5 * 7a k u t A utonom ous R epublic, oilfields in th e B ash k ir or T a ta r A utonom ous R epublics where th e settlem en ts often have n o t achieved u rb a n statu s.
A t th e opposite pole are th e republics w here industries w ith low v alu e products are developed and w here m echanization is also low, as in th e coal an d
5 Indeed th e e stim a te of “ A” for th e U krainian S SR gives th e value 4- 0, for th e Belorussian SSR — 5-4, for th e M oldavian SSR — 8-0, for th e E sto n ia n SSR and L a tv ia n SSR — 9-7, for th e L ith u an ian S S R even 11-2.
tim b e r in d u strie s of th e K om i A SSR. In these republics th e ra te a t w hich tow ns are form ed from ru ra l places is m ore ra p id th a n th e average in th e USSR, and u rb a n sta tu s is o ften given to se ttle m e n ts w ith sm all populations, which are no t h ig h ly industrialized .6
It is significant th a t inversions, k <C 1 in Table 2, are observed in th e re p u b lics w ith ex trem ely difficult living conditions. There, th e p ro d u c tiv ity of in d u strial la b o u r is less, an d a larger p a r t of th e population living in u rb a n places is occupied in services (P okshishevski, 1967).
I t is also useful to com pare th e v a lu e “k ” w ith th e figures in th e tw o right- h an d colum ns of Table 2. F o r instance, th is v alu eis som etim es p artic u la rly sm all w here th e level of u rb a n p o p u latio n w as low in 1939, for exam ple in th e Kom i ASSR w h ere m ost u rb a n places w ere fo rm e d after 1939.
8. The g ro w th of u rb a n pop u latio n , R = U1—U0, is n o t equivalent to th e flow to u rb a n places of form er ru ral in h a b ita n ts which w e w ill designate R m, i.e.
" R m ig ra n t” . There are tw o fu rth e r sources for this g ro w th : n a tu ra l increase R n, i.e. ‘7? n a tu ra l” an d th e grow th of th e u rb a n p o p u latio n as th e re su lt of some ru ra l places receiving u rb a n s ta tu s , R a, i.e. “R a d m in istra tiv e ” . In Table 3 one m ay see th e p ro p o rtio n of these elem ents for inter-census periods7 (D avidovich, 1959).
Ta b l e 3
G r o w th of u r b a n p o p u la tio n
I ts s o u rc e s
P e r io d s N a t u r a l
in c r e a s e
(/?»)
R u r a l p la c e s r e c e iv in g u r b a n
s t a t u s
{Ra)
M ig ra tio n (*m)
A. M illion
1926— 1939 29-8 5-3 5-8 18-7
1939— 1959 39-4 — 8 — 7 —24-25
B . P e r cent
1926— 1939 100-0 18 19 63
1939— 1959 100-0 — 20 — 18 - 6 2
In th e p erio d 1959-1966, th e g row th of u rb a n population in th e USSR w as 28 million. S ince in this period th e b irth r a te an d n a tu ra l gro w th decreased, we m ay suppose th a t th e ra te of R n also decreased. P ro b a b ly new u rb a n places were fo rm ed m ore ra p id ly th a n in 1939—1959, especially in com parison w ith th e w a r y e a rs w hen th is process was h in d e re d ; th e m ig ra tio n flow in to w n s and
6 For th e K arak alp ak ian A SSR a certain role is played by th e m ore “ lib e ra l” rules for form ing u rb a n places from ru r a l ones under th e law s of th e U zbek S SR of w hich th e K a ra k a l
p ak A SSR is a p a rt (see, for exam ple, Lizogub, 1966).
7 A fo u rth source m ay be th eo retically th e flow to th e cities of people coming from abroad.
However, in th e USSR as a ’w hole in te rn a tio n a l m ig ratio n s form a n insignificant q u a n tity and m ay be disregarded. Only for c ertain in d iv id u al republics should i t be ta k e n into acco u n t (e.
g. th e re p a tria tio n to th e A rm en ian SSR, w here a n im p o rta n t p a r t of th e im m igrants settled in th e cities). D om estic, in terre p u b lican , in te rre g io n a l or in tero b last m ig ratio n is a v e ry im p o rta n t source for th e grow th o f u rb a n p o p u latio n . I t is necessary to ta k e careful acc o u n t of i t when s tu d y in g th e various territo ries se p a ra te ly . B u t here th e ra te s R , R n , R a an d R m are estim ated o n ly for the co u n try as a whole.
cities also increased. The recent proportions of R n, R a and R m m ay be estim ated as 15, 20 and 65 per cent of R , i.e. R m = 2/3R.
9. I t rem ains to estim ate how m uch of R m is m ade up of ag ric u ltu ral p o p u la tion. In th e fram ew ork of th is paper, th e a u th o r cannot an a ly se this problem in detail, including the relatio n sh ip betw een indices of incom e level in ru ral an d u rb a n places an d m igration, etc. B ut a p riori one m ay suppose t h a t th e g re a te r p a rt of R m is formed by persons form erly occupied in ag ric u ltu re— due to m echanization and to th e grow th of services in rural places which p erm it tran sferen ce of th e p o p u latio n to o th er spheres of econom y.8
10. This p ap e r also has a ce rtain im p o rtan ce for explaining th e changes in th e population occupied in agricu ltu re. H ow ever, th e increase of th e urb an p o p u lation is n o t eq u al to th e exodus of th e ru ra l population an d fo r th e USSR as a whole R m = 2/3, U1 — U0. Som e corrections are also necessary in u n d e rs ta n d ing th e coefficient “k ”. F o r th e n u m era to r to be related only to th e p o p u latio n flowing to u rb a n places from ru ral ones, a n d n o t to all u rb a n population, we
m u st m u ltip ly p
‘k ” b y 3/2. Thus th e average r a tio—- R m for the U SSR be- 3 -8 x 3
comes
2 = 5'7. Since R m R—(/?„ -)- R a), regional v aria tio n s in th e n a tu ra l increase of the u rb a n population a n d th e differences in the a d m in istra tiv e policy in form ing u rb a n places from ru ra l ones m u st h a v e some influence on th e value of “k ” in different regions.
11. The w hole problem of determ ining th e correlation has th u s great regional variatio n s. F o r a country as big as th e U S S R , th e average correlation can only serve as a reference point fo r m easuring d eviations. For o th e r socialist c o u n tries, w here th e geographical differences are fewer, the indices for each region would p ro b a b ly be nearer to th e average. In these countries it is possible to define several local types a n d to determ ine for each type th e m easure of d e v ia tio n from th e average correlation ratio.
B IB L IO G R A P H Y
Itogi vsesojuznoj perepisy naselenija 1959 goda (R eturns of t h e 1959 census), SSSR (Svodnyj tom ) Moscow 1962.
D avidovich, V. G. (1951) N aselenie i goroda S S S R po predvaritel’n im itogam vsesojuznoj perepisy naselenija 1959 g. (The p o pulation an d tow ns of th e Soviet U nion in th e p relim i
n ary d a ta of th e 1959 census), Geografija v skole, 5.
Lizogub, Y. K. (1966) G radoohrazovanie, K ateg o rii gorodov i dru g ih gorodskih poselenij (U rbanization an d th e categorization of th e to w n s and urban se ttle m e n ts of th e S oviet Union), Geografija a skole, 2.
N arodnoe h o zjajstv o SSSR v 1965 g. (The n atio n al econom y of th e S o v iet Union in 1965), Statisticeskij Ezegodnik. Moscow 1966.
Pokshishevski, V. V. (1957) 0 geografii naselenija, zanjatogo v SSSR v sfere ’n e m a te ria l’- nogo p roizvodstva i obsluzivanija (G eographical survey of the S o v iet U nion’s p o p u latio n em ployed in services and th a t o f in n on-m aterial p roduction), Geografija naselenija i nase- lennyh punkloa S S S R . L eningrad.
8 The m ig ratio n of ru r a l p o p u latio n to u rb an places in th e USSR is o fte n preceded b y th e m ig ran ts receiving in th eir hom e villages “ u rb a n ” profession, such as chauffeur, b uilding w orker, shop assistan t, e tc .,'a n d th e n going first to a n adjacent sm all to w n . A fterw ards th e y m ay go to a g re a t city or to som e g re a t co n stru ctio n project.
THE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION ON THE LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANPOWER IN CROATIA
by
I. C R K V E N C I C
D uring th e socialist developm ent of Yugoslavia since th e Second W o rld W ar, agriculture has been ab a ndoned to a g re a t degree an d th e ru ral la b o u r force has dim inished considerably. D uring a relatively sh o rt period of only 13 years (1948 to 1961) th e Y ugoslav village w as abandoned b y over 2 m illion people or ab o u t 500,000 m ore th a n th e n a tu ra l increase of th e ru ra l p o p u latio n .1
D uring th e socialist period this num erical decrease in th e Y ugoslav rural population has been th e consequence of th ree causes: (1) th e in h e rite d rural overpopulation w hich was worse in 1948, (2) th e in d u strializ atio n of the co u n try which created new jobs and th e possibility of em ploying a g re a t p a rt of lab o u r force in n o n -a g raria n activities, p artic u la rly in secondary in d u stries, and (3) th e socialization of agricu ltu re which has led to th e tra n sfe r of consid
erable am ounts of in d iv id u a lly ow ned farm lan d to collective farm s.
These socio-economic processes h a v e m arkedly changed th e s tru c tu re of the lab o u r force, chiefly in fa v o u r of an increase in secondary and te r tia r y ac tiv i
ties, an d also its local d istrib u tio n . This rep o rt will presen t only one aspect of th e local d istrib u tio n of m anpow er in C roatia, nam ely th e relatio n sh ip betw een places of residence and em ploym ent, or th e com m uting of w orkers.
It is h o p ed th a t th is will co n trib u te to th e know ledge of th e differentiated developm ent of th e ru ra l exodus in Yugoslav regions because th e present d istrib u tio n of m anpow er is to a considerable degree th e consequence of the p ostw ar ab an d o n m e n t of farm ing.
The Y ugoslav census of 1961 contains d ata on th e la b o u r force in com m unal areas in th e following categories: (a) residing and em ployed in th e sam e settle
m ent, (b) em ployed o u tsid e th e place of residence b u t in th e sam e com m unal area, a n d (c) em ployed in o th er com m unal areas. These d a ta were collected to discover th e num ber an d local d istrib u tio n of daily com m uters.1 2 U n fo rtu n ately the census does n o t show th e n u m b e r of workers em ployed in one com m unal area a n d residing in o th ers. Thus th e available sta tistic a l d a ta only p e rm it the d eterm in a tio n of com m uting by resid en ts of a com m unal area to places of em p loym ent, or daily em ig ran t com m uters, b u t n o t com m uting in th e opposite sense o r th e daily im m ig ra n t com m uters.
1 L iv a d a , S. (1965) M jesovita gospodarstva u Jugoslaviji (M ixed H om esteads in Y ugosla
via), Sociologija sela, 7-8, p. 27, Zagreb.
2 Popis stan o v n istv a 1961 (N ational Census of 1961), D ocum ent EC No. P S -1 -6 1 /4 2 9 , Savezni zárod za statistiku, Belgrade, 1964.
13
Ta b l e 1
T h e places of em p lo y m e n t of th e C ro a t labour force in 19613
S e x T o ta l N u m b e r
E m p lo y e d in a ll C ro atia
T h e p la c e o f re s id e n c e
T h e h o m e c o m m u n a l a r e a b u t o u ts id e th e p la c e o f re s id e n c e
O th e r co m m u n a l a re a s
N u m b e r % N u m b e r % N u m b e r %
B o th 1,954,269 1,582,960 81 136,800 7 234,509 12
M ale 1,220,157 939,524 77 97,610 8 183,023 15
F em ale 734,112 638,668 87 29,368 4 66,876 9
C ro atia w ithout cities w ith intra-u rb an co m m u tin3r
B o th 1,600,219 1,392,191 87 112,015 7 96,013 6
M ale 1,001.144 820,938 82 90,103 9 90,103 9
F em ale 601.075 571,021 95 24,043 4 6,011 1
T able 1 shows t h a t in C roatia in 1961 as m uch as 81 per c e n t of th e labour fo rce were em p lo y ed in th e ir places of residence, which m eans t h a t daily com m uting w as g enerally sm all a n d involved o n ly 19 per ce n t of th e labour fo rce.3 4 The m ale la b o u r force c o m m u ted m ore (23 per cent) th a n th e female w ork ers (13 p e r c e n t). C om m uting to other com m unal areas was stronger t h a n to other p a r ts of the h o m e com m unal area.
If, however, th e num bersof th e la b o u r force in th e four largest u rb a n districts (Z agreb, R ijeka, S p lit and O sijek), ch aracterized b y strong in tra -u rb a n com m u tin g , are d isregarded, th e p ic tu re for the re st of C roatia is som ew hat different.
In th e rest of C ro atia as m an y as 87 per cent of th e labour force w ork in resi
d e n tia l com m unal areas and o n ly 13 per cent co m m u te daily. The nu m b er of t h e com m uters is considerably sm aller, p a rtic u la rly of th e fem ale workers (5 p e r cent). T he n u m b e r of w o rk e rs com m uting w ithin com m unal areas is b ig g e r (7 per c e n t) th a n of tho se com m uting b etw een com m unal areas (6 per c e n t).
T he in tra -u rb a n com m uting of th e labour force is characteristic only for the fo u r above-m entioned biggest u r b a n districts. I t differs m ark e d ly from the situ a tio n in th e c o u n try as a w hole. Table 2 shows t h a t 59 per cent of th e labour fo rce reside an d w ork in th e sam e com m unal area, and 40 per ce n t of them co m m u te to jobs in o th er co m m u n al areas chiefly of the sam e u rb a n d istrict.
O n ly a small p a r t of th e urban la b o u r force w ork in one and reside in an o th er 3 Popis sta n o v n istv a 1961 (N ational Census of 1961), D ocum ent EC No. P S -1 -6 1 , Savezni zavod za statistiku, B elgrade, 1964.
4 T he term “ d a ily com m uter” covers a ll workers em ployed outside th e ir places of resi
d e n c e without re g a rd to comm unal area borders. The Y ugoslav com m unal areas are consid
e ra b le territorial u n its (in Croatia w ith a n average of 17,000 in h ab itan ts an d 27 settlem ents), a n d lim iting the te r m d aily com m uter o n ly to workers em ployed outside th e com m unal area o f th e ir residence w ould produce a w ro n g p ictu re of th e d a ily com m uting. W e underline th a t th i s tab le also covers th e whole farm la b o u r force and t h a t all workers on p riv a te ly owned fa rm s are shown as la b o u r em ployed in t h e i r place of residence.
14
Ta b l e 2
T he la b o u r force of th e four largest u rb a n districts in C ro atia in 19615
Sex Total n u m b e r
E m ployed in all Croatia The com m unal a rea
of residence
The ow n com m unal a re a b u t outside th e place of residence
In o th e r com m unal a re a s of th e own
u rb a n district
Num ber 1 % N u m b e r % N u m b e r | %
B oth 3 5 2 , 0 5 0 2 0 3 ,5 2 4 5 9 6 , 3 9 5 l 1 4 1 ,0 8 9 4 0
Male 2 1 9 ,0 1 3 1 2 7 ,0 8 8 5 8 4 , 6 4 8 2 8 6 , 7 0 0 4 0
Fem ale 1 3 3 ,0 3 7 7 6 ,4 3 6 5 9 1 ,7 4 7 i 5 4 ,3 8 9 4 0
p a r t of th e same com m u n al area of th e urban d is tric t and th ese are chiefly a t th e outskirts of th e city.
If th e num bers of th e labour force com m uting w ith in the larg est four urban d istric ts of C roatia are disregarded, th e n u m b e r of the d aily com m uters (225,537) in the r e s t of Croatia (T able 1) ap p ro x im a te s t h a t of employees an d w orkers (230,883) employed o u tsid e th eir places of residence (Table 3), w hich would m ean t h a t daily com m uting is done chiefly by th e people who in th e Y ugoslav census w ere classed u n d e r the h ea d in g of “ W orkers-em ployees” .
Ta b l e 3
E m ployees and w orkers em ployed in v ario u s activities outside their places of residence in C ro atia in 1961®
T o t a l n u m b e r of p e o p le em p lo y ed o u ts id e th e ir p la ces
o f resid en ce
A c t i v i t y g r o u p s 5 6 7
P r i m a r y S e c o n d a ry T e r tia r y
num ber j % j n u m b e r | % | n u m b e r | %
230,883 19,974 9 146,399 63 64,518 28
T ab le 3 also show s t h a t the d aily com m uting is done b y peo p le m ostly em ployed in secondary activities (63 per cent) a n d th en in te r tia r y activities (28 p e r cent). Only a sm all num ber of the daily com m uters (9 p er cent) are em ployed in p rim ary activities.
T h e daily co m m uting of the la b o u r force differs from region to region. To d eterm in e the p re se n t differences th e com m unal areas have been gro u p ed into ty p e s according to th e se two crite ria : (1) th e places of e m p lo y m en t of th e la b o u r force of th e com m unal areas, an d (2) th e occu p atio n al s tru c tu re of th e co m m u ters of the com m unal areas.
5 P o p is stan o v n istv a 1961 (N ational Census of 1961), D ocum ent EC N o. P S -1-1961, Savezni zavod za sta tistiku , Belgrade, 1964.
6 P opis stan o v n istv a 1961, Radnici i sluzbenici po m je s tu ra d a i d je la tn o s ti (Table 2-04) (N atio n al Census of 1961, W orkers and E m ployees w ith th e ir places of em ploym ent and th e ir activities), Zavod za statistiku S R H rvatske, Zagreb.
7 T he prim ary a c tiv itie s comprise th e la b o u r force em ployed in ag ricu ltu re, forestry and fishery; th e secondary in m ining, in d u stry , construction a n d tra d e s; and th e te r tia ry in th e re m a in in g activities.
15
Since in this re p o rt th e classification of com m unal areas into ty p e s rests exclusively on q u a n tita tiv e d a ta , th is classification h a s been based o n th e per
ce n ta g e of th e la b o u r force em ployed outside th e ir places of residence and on th e percen tag e of d a ily com m uters em ployed in v ario u s activities. B ased on th e s e tw o ind icato rs, th e com m unal a reas have been gro u p ed into th e following ty p e s :
(A) C om m unal area ty p e s based on th e location of th e lab o u r force a n d on the degree to w hich com m uting is developed.
(1) Com munal areas w ith little developed daily com m uting. U p to 9 per cent of th e la b o u r force w ork outside th e ir places of residence.
(2) C om m unal areas w ith m o d e ra te ly developed daily com m uting; 10 to 29 per cent of th e labour force work outside th e ir places of residence.
(3) C om m unal areas w ith well developed daily com m uting w h e re 30 per cent to 49 p e r cent of th e la b o u r force w ork outside th e ir places of residence.
(4) Com munal a reas w ith local com m uting of th e labour force w ith in the u rb a n d istric t.
(5) U rban co m m u n al areas w ith m u ch com m uting of the lab o u r force b u t chiefly w ith in th e com m unal areas of th e u rb a n d istrict and w ith in the places of residence.
(B) C om m unal area ty p e s based on th e proportion of th e daily com m uters em ployed in v ario u s activities.
(I) Com munal a re a s where th e d aily com m uters em ployed in prim ary activities d o m in a te n u m eric ally w ith
(a) 76 per c e n t a n d m ore (b) 50 per ce n t to 75 per cent
(b—1) A m ong th e rest of th e daily com m uters those em ployed in seco n d ary activities d o m in a te num erically.
(b-2) A m ong th e rest of th e daily com m uters those em ployed in te rtia r y activities d o m in a te num erically.
(II) Com munal a reas where th e d a ily com m uters em ployed in secondary activities d o m in a te n u m eric ally w ith
(a) 76 per c e n t and m ore (b) 50 per c e n t to 75 per c e n t
(b—1) A m ong th e rest of th e daily com m uters those em ployed in p rim a ry activities d o m in a te num erically.
(b-2) A m ong th e rest of th e daily com m uters those em ployed in te rtia r y activities d o m in a te num erically.
( I II) Com munal areas where th e daily com m uters em ployed in te rtia ry activities d o m in a te num erically w ith
(a) 76 per ce n t or more (b) 50 per c e n t to 75 per ce n t
(b-1) A m ong th e rest of th e daily com m uters those em ployed in p rim ary activities d o m in a te num erically.
(b-2) A m ong th e rest of th e daily com m uters those em ployed in seco n d ary activities d o m in a te num erically.
(IV) Com munal areas where th e ra tio of daily com m uters in th e ab o v e three categories do n o t am ount to 50 per cent of all to ta l daily com m uters.
(a) The num erical differences betw een t h e com m uters em ployed in individual activities are sm aller th a n 20 per cent.
(b) The n um erical differences betw een th e d aily com m uters em ployed in in d iv id u al activities are bigger th a n 20 per cent.
T he territo ria l e x te n t of th e d aily com m uting can be exam ined
(a) according to th e place of em ploym ent and (b) according to th e activities of th e daily com m uters.
(a) In C roatia, of 234 com m unal areas (1961)8 as m an y as 46 p e r cent belong to th e ty p e of little developed daily commuting, an d 44 per cent to th e ty p e of moderately developed daily com muting. The la tte r g ro u p was d o m in a te d by (55) com m unal areas w here th e d aily com m uting to jobs outside th e areas was g re a te r th a n w ith in th em . The com m unal areas w ith well developed daily com m uting am o u n ted to only 6 p e r cent of all th e areas in C ro atia, an d th eir g roup was dom in ated b y those areas (13) w here th e com m uting w as greater b etw een th e areas th a n w ithin th em . Second place w as ta k e n by th e com m unal areas (2) where th e d aily com m uters to jobs w ith in th e areas w as g re a te r th an betw een them . S even com m unal areas in co rp o rated in th e fo u r above-m en
tio n e d largest u rb a n districts show ed the characteristics of in tra -u rb a n com
m u tin g and th e y are therefore sep a rated into a special com m unal a re a ty p e.
(b) The daily com m uters em ployed in prim ary activities d o m in ate num eri
cally only in 3 p er c e n t of th e com m unal areas, a n d tho se in secondary activities in as m an y as 60 p e r cent. The la s t group contains 34 com m unal areas where am ong th e daily com m uters those em ployed in seco n d ary ac tiv ities dom inate num erically w ith 76 p er cent an d m ore and 108 com m unal areas w h ere among th e daily com m uters those em ployed in secondary activities d o m in ate num eri
cally w ith 50 per ce n t to 75 per cen t. The daily co m m u ters em ployed in tertiary activities dom inate num erically only in 12 per c e n t of th e com m u n al areas, w ith 76 per cent or m ore in 9 com m unal areas, a n d w ith 50 p e r ce n t to 75 p er cent in 20 com m unal areas. The com m unal areas w here th e daily com m uters in th e specified categories do n o t am ount to 50 p er cent of all th e daily com m uters cover th e re st (25 p e r cent) of these te rrito ria l units.
No a tte m p t is m ad e in th is p ap e r to analyse th e local d istrib u tio n of daily com m uters in detail, b u t only to stress th e m ost o u tsta n d in g regional differences a n d to point o u t th e principal areas of well developed daily com m uting.
T hree principal regions of well developed daily com m uting s ta n d o u t, and th e y occur around th e th ree biggest cities in C roatia.
Zagreb is su rro u n d ed b y th e biggest num ber of com m unal areas w ith well or m o d era tely developed daily com m uting, p a rtic u la rly in th e im m e d ia te neigh
bourhood of th e city , and in th e region consisting of th e C roat Z agorje, th e u p p e r D rava v alley an d M edim urje. E xcept for th re e com m unal areas w ith little developed d aily com m uting in th e peripheral p a r t of M edim urje, all the com m unal areas of th is region show m oderately o r well developed d aily com
m u tin g . In all th e com m unal areas n ea r Zagreb th e daily com m u tin g betw een com m unal areas dom in ates and is chiefly directed tow ards Z agreb. Also in all
8 In 1961 in C roatia th ere were 245 com m unal areas b u t in th is report th e 11 com m unal areas of Zagreb are included in a unified city district.
t h e com m unal areas of th e Z agreb region w ith o u t exception th e d a ily com
m u te rs em ployed in secondary ac tiv itie s dom inate num erically. In absolute te rm s , th e Zagreb region shows th e m o st developed d aily com m uting because t h e n um ber of d aily com m uters is considerable in all com m unal a re a s of the region.
I n th e Zagreb region the daily com m uting is cau sed by b o th th e agrarian o v erp o p u latio n of th e region an d b y th e com plex functions of Z agreb as the c a p ita l city of C ro atia whose le a d in g industrial a n d com m ercial role is signifi
c a n t n o t only for C roatia b u t fo r all Y ugoslavia.
R ije k a takes second place as a n im p o rta n t ce n tre surro u n d ed b y com m unal a re a s w ith m o d era tely or well develo p ed daily com m uting, p a rtic u la rly in its im m e d ia te neighbourhood, follow ed b y Istria, th e G orski K o tar, th e nearby islan d s and th e n o rth e rn p a rt of th e V elebit litto ra l. E x c e p t for tw o com m unal a re a s w ith little developed daily com m uting, all th e com m unal a reas of the R ije k a region show m o d erately o r w ell developed d aily com m uting. R ijeka itse lf and th e th re e ad jacen t c o m m u n al areas are so closely linked b y their la b o u r force th a t th e y are ch a rac te rised by in tra -u rb a n com m uting. In contrast to th e Zagreb region, th e R ijeka re g io n is not n u m eric ally dom in ated b y daily co m m u ters em ployed in secondary activities. H ere th e ac tiv ity s tru c tu re of the d a ily com m uters is m uch m ore co m plex, and th e sh a re of te rtia ry activ ities is bigger. The ab so lu te to ta l n u m b e r of daily co m m u ters is sm aller th a n in the com m unal areas aro u n d Zagreb, w h ich can be seen from th e co m m u ters’ num b e rs of the in d iv id u a l com m unal areas.
D aily com m uting in the R ije k a region is th e consequence of relatively u n fa v o u rab le n a tu r a l conditions n o t only for the fu r th e r developm ent b u t even fo r th e m ain ten an c e of ag ricu ltu ral production. This is related to th e easier con
d itio n s of em p lo y m en t in n o n -a g ra ria n jobs, and to th e role of R ije k a as the p rin cip a l Yugoslav’ p o rt and as a stro n g industrial a n d a d m in istra tiv e centre.
T h e relatively g re a te r n um ber of d aily com m uters em ployed in te rtia ry ac tiv itie s is obviously th e consequence of the to u ristic im portance of th e region.
T he th ird in th e o rd e r of centres su rro u n d e d b y com m unal areas w ith m oder
a te ly or well developed daily co m m u tin g is Split. I ts region covers th e Croat co a sta l region from Sibenik to M a k a rsk a w ith th e neighbouring islands. E xcept fo r th re e com m unal areas w ith little developed d aily com m uting in th e interior of th e region, all th e com m unal a reas show m o d era tely or well developed daily com m uting. The com m unal areas w h e re the n u m b e r of com m uters em ployed in secondary ac tiv itie s dom inate a re num erous b u t th e re are also com m unal a re a s where th e em ployees in te r tia r y activities d o m in a te num erically, although th e y are fewer t h a n in th e R ije k a region. O therw ise th e daily com m uting is absolutely m ore developed in th e S p lit region th a n in th e v icin ity of R ijeka, as can be seen from th e num bers of daily com m uters in the in d iv id u a l com
m u n a l areas.
D a ily com m uting in th e S plit re g io n is th e reflection of th e c ity ’s function as a principal ad m in istra tiv e c e n tre of th e cen tral a n d southern p a r ts of the C ro at coastal region, and of its m a ritim e and in d u s tria l im portance. F u rth e r
m o re, in th e su rro u n d in g co astal a n d island p a r ts of the region, th e rural p o p u latio n are ab an d o n in g fa rm in g in g reat n u m b ers an d seeking em ploym ent in non-agrarian activities.
I n addition to th e three m e n tio n e d p rin c ip a l regions of w ell developed d a ily com m uting, th e m ap show s tw o m ore regions w ith re la tiv e ly less de
v eloped daily com m uting: th e y a re th e regions of Osijek and Z a d a r.
T he Osijek region covers th e low land of eastern] Croatia a n d contains only co m m u n al areas w ith m o d era tely developed d aily com m uting. There is no com m unal area w here com m uting is well developed and th e com m uters are chiefly em ployed in secondary ac tiv ities. B ecause of its g re at econom ic p o ten tia l and its ad m in istrativ e im p o rta n c e for a considerable p a r t of eastern C ro atia, Osijek shows well d eveloped in tra -u rb a n com m uting.
D ev astated d u rin g the S econd W orld W a r an d connected b y rail w ith th e in la n d as late as 1967, Zadar h a s n o t y e t developed its in d u s tria l p o ten tial to a degree requiring in tra -u rb a n com m uting, b u t the com m unal areas around th e c ity show well or m oderately developed com m uting because t h e ru ral po p u la tio n is abandoning farming in th e Croat co a sta l region. In t h e Z adar region m o st of the d aily com m uters a re em ployed in te rtia r y activities.
In th e rest of C roatia, th e fa rm in g of regions with only m o d e ra te daily com m u tin g is perceptible, p a rtic u la rly aro u n d Slavonski B rod, S isak and K arlo- v a c , i.e. near sm aller a d m in istra tiv e and in d u stria l centres w h ich a re still in th e developing stag e. Otherwise th e re st of C ro atia counts com m u n al areas w ith little developed daily com m uting, p a rtic u la rly in northern C ro a tia , th e K u p a v alley , the K o rd u n , Lika an d p a r t of th e D a lm atian h in te rla n d , th e Zagora.
T hese are the areas where em p lo y m en t o p p o rtu n itie s for co n sid erab le num bers of th e population in non-ag rarian activities h a v e no t yet been created .
2* 19
THE MIGRATION OF POPULATION AND THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF SLOVENIA
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by
VI. K L E M E N Ö I Ö
In d u stria liz a tio n is accom panied b y th e decay of th e old classic agrarian stru c tu re . This d ecay finds its expression in th e dem ogeographic, economic, an d physiognom ic elem ents of th e s tru c tu re of space. The process is conditioned b y sev eral fa c to rs: th e grow th of in d u s try , its sp atial d istrib u tio n a n d its level of te c h n ic a l developm ent, th e d ev elopm ent of com m unications, an d the te c h n ic a l d evelopm ent and com m ercialization of agriculture. These facto rs are la te r reinforced, p a rtic u la rly a t a h ig h e r stage in th e form ation of a n industrial society, b y an o th er: th e developm ent of te rtia ry activities, in clu d in g p a rtic u larly tra d e and h an d icraft-services as well as p ro d u c tio n which are developed in response to th e c o n sta n t increase in th e dem ands of consum ers. T his process of d ecay in th e dem ogeographic, econom ic, and physiognom ic elem en ts of the old a g ra ria n s tru c tu re and th e g ra d u a l prevalence of th e same elem en ts of the in d u s tria l stru c tu re also depend on th e character of th e p a rtic u la r agrarian s tru c tu re , including th e social-landow nershipstructure, th e sizeof la n d parcels, t he s p a tia l d istrib u tio n of land p arcels, and n a tu ra l conditions. In th is process E a st-E u ro p e a n countries differ significantly from those of W est E u ro p e . In W est E u ro p e an countries, th e d evelopm ent of th e technological, economic, an d social effects of in d u strial tech n iq u es has been sp read over a lo n g er period.
Besides, these effects have developed in a different order. Owing to a different re la tio n sh ip of th e elem ents of technological developm ent in in d u s try , agri
cu ltu re , an d com m unications, differences are also a p p a re n t in th e s tru c tu re of th e in d iv id u al phases of th e decay of agrarian society and of th e fo rm a tio n of in d u stria l society.
In W est E u ro p ean countries, th e elem ents of in d u strial technique first came to th e fore in in d u stria l production, n e x t in com m unications, and fin ally in th e ag ric u ltu ral econom y. In E ast E u ro p e a n countries, w here in d u strializ atio n is a co m p arativ ely new phenom enon a n d h as come to th e fore as th e p re d o m in a n t econom ic branch only in th e decades afte r W orld W a r II, th e po ssib ility of econom ic p a rity w ith W est E u ro p e an countries perm its the dev elo p m en t of in d u stria l tech n iq u e in all com ponents of in d u stry , in com m unications and in a g ric u ltu ra l technology a t the sam e tim e.
E a c h phase in th e decay of th e old classic ag rarian stru ctu re a n d in the a d v a n c e of th e in d u stria l stru ctu re is accom panied b y specific ty p e s of m igra
tion. These can be regarded as th e regulators of th e gradual d ecrease of the a g ra ria n o v erp o p u latio n and a t th e sam e tim e as a factor in th e d isap p ear
ance of old and th e appearance of new social groups w hich differ am o n g th em selves w ith respect to m obility, w ith respect to th e ir role in p ro d u c tio n , and th e ir w hole w ay of life. M igrations also open up previously self-contained agra
ria n areas. M igrations m ake for th e reduction of a g ra ria n overpopulation, for changes in th e s tr u c tu r e of fam ilies, a n d for changes in th e a ttitu d e of families to w ard s the a g ra ria n economy a n d la n d . And m ig ratio n s likewise m a k e for th e fo rm a tio n of a sem i-ag ricu ltu ral so c ie ty in a g re a t v a rie ty of form s.
In a purely a g ric u ltu ra l society t h e fam ily is considerably bigger an d com
p osed of three g ro u p s : close m em b ers of th e fa m ily (landlord, his wife, child
re n , parents), fa m ily relatives (u n m a rrie d b ro th e rs o r sisters, uncles, aunts), a n d hired lab o u r (farm -labourers).
W ith regard to t h e degree of re lia n c e of th e la n d lo rd ’s fam ily on la n d and on th e agricultural eco n o m y , we id e n tify purely fa rm in g families (all m em bers of th e fam ily are em p lo y ed in farm in g , incom e o u tsid e farm ing is negligible in com parison w ith t h e to ta l incom e of th e fam ily), a n d a series of tran sitio n al form s of m ixed s tr u c tu r e —families w h e re only a y o u n g e r m em ber of th e fam ily is em ployed o u tsid e farm ing—u s u a lly th e y o u n g er son who is n o t in ten d ed to b e th e heir to th e fa rm ; families w h e re all grow n-up sons are em ployed outside fa rm in g ; families w h e re the la n d lo rd as well is em p lo y ed outside farm ing; and fam ilies where w o m e n in ad d itio n to m en are em ployed outside farm ing.
F am ilies can also b e classified acco rd in g to th e a g e -stru c tu re of th e ir m em bers;
th u s families co m p o sed of m ostly old m em bers, fam ilies com posed of m iddle a n d old generations, a n d families com posed of p erso n s of all generations. The v a rio u s forms of ag ric u ltu ra l fam ilies an d the d iffe ren t forms of dependence on th e la n d reflect th e various phases of th e decay of th e old a g ra ria n classical stru c tu re , and are accom panied b y th e various ty p e s of m igrations.
T he population em igrates for g o o d , for th e season, or m igrates daily from th e place of living to th e place of w o rk . In th e in itia l phase of th e decay of th e a g ra ria n stru c tu re a n d of the o p en in g of the a g ra ria n countryside in th e direc
tio n of industrial a re a s, seasonal fo rm s of m ig ratio n s are pred o m in an t. Adult m em bers of big fam ilies of all th re e ty p e s (close m em bers, relatives, an d hired lab o u r) seek a d d itio n a l income in seasonal w ork in forestry, th e building in d u s try , or in seaso n al industries. D u rin g this ph ase, th e stru ctu re of th e fam ily w ith respect to b o th ag e-structure a n d reliance on la n d does not change signifi
c a n tly , and th e in co m e from seaso n al work w hich is com bined w ith em ploy
m e n t a t the tim e of th e highest a g ric u ltu ra l p ro d u c tio n (A rbeitsspitzenzeit) is no m ore th an a su p p le m e n t and a c o m p arativ ely m in o r p a rt of th e to ta l income of th e farm ing fa m ily .
T he second p h ase is already acco m p an ied by th e d a ily m igration of labour to m o re or less d is ta n t places of em p lo y m en t, as well as b y perm an en t em igration of population. H o w e v er, besides th e p erm a n en t d a ily m igrations we still find v ario u s forms of sea so n al em igration. This is a p h a se during w hich th e agrarian te rr ito r y comes clo ser to the place of em ploym ent, o r ra th e r, when th e influence of th e em ploym ent centres is m ore in ten se in a v a r ie ty of ways. D uring this p h a se the a g ric u ltu ra l hired lab o u r em igrates for good, individual m em bers of ag ric u ltu ral fam ilies a re included in th e daily m ig ra tio n , m ostly in areas which h a v e traffic co n n e ctio n s w ith th e em p lo y m en t ce n tres sufficiently good to allow , in addition t o work on th e la n d , daily tra v e llin g and w ork outside of farm ing. On such te rrito rie s y o u n g e r m em bers of th e farm ing fam ily who are n o t planning to ta k e o ver the farm a re increasingly less reliant on lan d . Older people find it m o re difficult to ta k e p a r t in th e d a ily m igration, in w ork out-
side farm ing, or to leave for good, b u t th e fam ily or property do n o t p lay any p a r t in this.
O n territories fa rth e r aw ay fro m th e em ploym ent centres, th e p o p u latio n is p e rm a n e n tly em ployed in the b u ild in g in d u stry , in other kinds of in d u stry , as w ell as in various o th e r economic b ran ch es, and workers re tu rn h om e weekly, m o n th ly , or a t lo n g er intervals.
T he inclusion of agrarian te r r ito r y in th e sphere of daily co m m u tin g (Pen
delw anderungsbereich) means a t t h e sam e tim e th e alienation of fam ilies w ith ag ric u ltu ra l incom e from the lan d . T his is heightened b y th e inten sificatio n of in d u stry , p artic u la rly w ith th e inclusion of ag rarian regions in u rb a n areas w ith h ig h ly developed a n d varied in d u s try . In areas of daily m ig ratio n s, which are hierarch ically centralized and w h ich have a n u m b er of seco n d ary centres in a d d itio n to the m ain one, n o n -a g raria n economic branches offer em ploym ent to woi’kers w ith m ost kinds of qualifications, of all ages and b o th sexes, and for t h a t reason the occupational re -o rie n ta tio n of families w ith sm all lan d hold
ings is extrem ely ra p id . U sually, in a very brief interval of tim e , th e first to find em ploym ent is th e hired la b o u r and th e a d u lt m em bers of th e fanning fam ilies who are n o t planning to ta k e over farm , n ex t the la n d lo rd s and th e heirs, and finally a p a rt of w om en. These are th e areas of d aily com m uting,
^ w here th e dependence of small land-ow ners and th e ir families on la n d is de
creasing. On such territories all a d u lt m em bers of th e farm in g fam ily are em ployed outside farm ing, and a larg e p a rt of th e land is in th e h a n d s of non
fa rm in g families.
T he character a n d th e role of m ig ra tio n on territo rie s w ith only one industrial c e n tre and one-sidedly developed in d u stry , however, are w h o lly different.
H e re only one p a r t of the p o p u latio n w ith a] p artic u la r professional qualifica
tio n an d one sex find em ploym ent (in regions w ith heavy in d u s try , or in m in in g areas, m en only), and so th e dependence of families w ith farm ing in
com e on land is g re a te r. Likewise th e n u m b er of a d u lt m em bers w o rk in g on the la n d is bigger, an d for th a t re aso n th e families w ith small ho ld in g s usually re m a in half d ep en d en t on ag ric u ltu re.
Social changes in th e farm ing p o p u latio n and th e intensification of daily com m uting in th e developed a re a s are due to th e w ell-developed m eans of com m unication (a dense netw ork of traffic arte ries—railw ays a n d roads, w ith a densely developed and freq u en ted railw ay, bus, an d car traffic), In such areas, a p a r t from th e tre n d s in p e rm a n e n t m igrations from th e a g ra ria n h in terlan d to w ard s th e tow n a n d more in ten siv e daily com m uting of p o p u latio n of various professions and of b o th sexes we c a n also tra c e th e reverse tre n d of perm an en t m ig ratio n of th e to w n population to th e countryside. Through b uilding new re sid e n tia l q u arters (in blocs or v illas) or b y ad a p tin g farm ing h om es in country areas w hich have good traffic connections w ith th e em ploym ent centres, this k in d of population plays a role in th e tre n d of daily com m uting an d in the tran sfo rm atio n of agrarian se ttle m e n ts.
In th is individual phase and regio n ally , th e industrialization of S lovenia was accom panied by various types of m ig ratio n s. In th e form ation of these ty p es, a decisive role was play ed by th e la n d te n u re system , b y th e geographical v ariety of S lovenia, by th e effects of in d u stria liz a tio n and b y th e influence of W estern E u ro p e and o th e r continents, as w ell as by th e centres of t h e b o rd erlan d
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