Edited by Mihaela I. Stefan
FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS
Advanced Oxidation Processes for
Water Treatment
Adv anc ed Oxidation Pr oc es ses for W at er T reatment
Edited by Mihaela I. Stefaniwapublishing.com @IWAPublishing
ISBN: 9781780407180 (Paperback) ISBN: 9781780407197 (eBook)
Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) rely on the efficient generation of reactive radical species and are increasingly attractive options for water remediation from a wide variety of organic micropollutants of human health and/or environmental concern.
Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment covers the key advanced oxidation processes developed for chemical contaminant destruction in polluted water sources, some of which have been implemented successfully at water treatment plants around the world.
The book is structured in two sections; the first part is dedicated to the most relevant AOPs, whereas the topics covered in the second section include the photochemistry of chemical contaminants in the aquatic environment, advanced water treatment for water reuse, implementation of advanced treatment processes for drinking water production at a state-of-the art water treatment plant in Europe, advanced treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater, and green technologies for water remediation.
The advanced oxidation processes discussed in the book cover the following aspects:
• Process principles including the most recent scientific findings and interpretation.
• Classes of compounds suitable to AOP treatment and examples of reaction mechanisms.
• Chemical and photochemical degradation kinetics and modelling.
• Water quality impact on process performance and practical considerations on process parameter selection criteria.
• Process limitations and byproduct formation and strategies to mitigate any potential adverse effects on the treated water quality.
• AOP equipment design and economics considerations.
• Research studies and outcomes.
• Case studies relevant to process implementation to water treatment.
• Commercial applications.
• Future research needs.
Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment presents the most recent scientific and technological achievements in process understanding and implementation, and addresses to anyone interested in water remediation, including water industry professionals, consulting engineers, regulators, academics, students.
Advanced Oxidation Processes for
Water Treatment
Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment
Fundamentals and Applications
Edited by
Mihaela I. Stefan
Published by IWA Publishing Alliance House 12 Caxton Street London SW1H 0QS, UK Telephone: +44 (0)20 7654 5500 Fax: +44 (0)20 7654 5555 Email: publications@iwap.co.uk Web: www.iwapublishing.com First published 2018
© 2018 IWA Publishing
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1998), no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher, or, in the case of photographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the appropriate reproduction rights organization outside the UK.
Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to IWA Publishing at the address printed above.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for errors or omissions that may be made.
Disclaimer
The information provided and the opinions given in this publication are not necessarily those of IWA and should not be acted upon without independent consideration and professional advice. IWA and the Editors and Authors will not accept responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any person acting or refraining from acting upon any material contained in this publication.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 9781780407180 (Paperback)
ISBN: 9781780407197 (eBook)
Cover images:
TrojanUV system at Orange County Water District, CA, USA. Courtesy of Dr. George Tchobanoglous, UC Davis, CA, USA RO Membrane filtration system at Orange County Water District, CA, USA. Courtesy of OCWD
WEDECO PDO 1000 ozone generator installed at Sung-Nam water treatment plant, South Korea. Courtesy of WEDECO, a Xylem brand
All other images from istockphoto.com
To all of those who dream big, believe in themselves and work hard to make a difference in the world.
My thoughts go to my parents who taught me the value of perseverance despite humble beginnings and to my family who supported me on this journey.
Mihaela I. Stefan August 3, 2017
Contents
About the Editor . . . xvii
List of Contributors . . . xix
Preface . . . xxiii
Chapter 1 A few words about Water . . . 1
Mihaela I. Stefan 1.1 References . . . 4
Chapter 2 UV/Hydrogen peroxide process . . . 7
Mihaela I. Stefan 2.1 Introduction . . . 7
2.2 Electromagnetic Radiation, Photochemistry Laws and Photochemical Parameters . . . 8
2.2.1 Electromagnetic radiation . . . 8
2.2.2 Photochemistry laws . . . 9
2.2.3 Photochemical parameters . . . 11
2.3 UV Radiation Sources . . . 15
2.3.1 Blackbody radiation . . . 15
2.3.2 Mercury vapor-based UV light sources for water treatment . . . 16
2.3.3 Mercury-free UV lamps . . . 21
2.4 UV/H2O2 Process Fundamentals . . . 23
2.4.1 Photolysis of hydrogen peroxide . . . 23
2.4.2 Hydroxyl radical . . . 27
2.4.3 Rate constants of •OH reactions with organic and inorganic compounds . . . . 32
viii Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment
2.5 Kinetic Modeling of UV/H2O2 Process . . . 39
2.5.1 Pseudo-steady-state approximation and dynamic kinetic models . . . 40
2.5.2 Computational fluid dynamics models for the UV/H2O2 process . . . 46
2.6 Water Quality Impact on UV/H2O2 Process Performance . . . 47
2.6.1 pH . . . 48
2.6.2 Temperature . . . 48
2.6.3 Water matrix composition . . . 48
2.7 Performance Metrics for UV Light-Based AOPs . . . 50
2.7.1 Electrical energy per order . . . 50
2.7.2 UV Fluence (UV dose) . . . 52
2.8 UV/H2O2 AOP Equipment Design and Implementation . . . 55
2.8.1 UV Reactor design concepts . . . 55
2.8.2 Sizing full-scale UV equipment from bench- and pilot-scale . . . 57
2.8.3 Incorporating the UV light-based processes into water treatment trains . . . . 59
2.9 UV/H2O2 AOP for Micropollutant Treatment in Water . . . 60
2.9.1 Laboratory-scale research studies . . . 61
2.9.2 Pilot-scale tests . . . 76
2.9.3 Full-scale UV/H2O2 AOP installations . . . 82
2.9.4 Process economics, sustainability and life-cycle assessment . . . 88
2.10 Byproduct Formation and Mitigation Strategies . . . 93
2.11 Future Research Needs . . . 99
2.12 Acknowledgments . . . 100
2.13 References . . . 100
Chapter 3 Application of ozone in water and wastewater treatment . . . .123
Daniel Gerrity, Fernando L. Rosario-Ortiz, and Eric C. Wert 3.1 Introduction . . . 123
3.2 Properties of Ozone . . . 123
3.3 Decomposition of Ozone in Water . . . 124
3.4 Ozonation for Contaminant Removal . . . 126
3.4.1 Overview .. . . 126
3.4.2 Direct reactions with ozone . . . 126
3.4.3 Impact of water quality on process performance . . . 129
3.4.4 Summary . . . 138
3.5 Formation of Byproducts . . . 139
3.6 Microbiological Applications . . . 140
3.6.1 Disinfection in drinking water and wastewater applications . . . 140
3.6.2 Microbial surrogates and indicators . . . 141
3.6.3 Ozone dosing frameworks for disinfection . . . 142
3.6.4 Vegetative bacteria . . . 144
3.6.5 Viruses . . . 146
3.6.6 Spore-forming microbes . . . 147
3.7 Implementation at Full Scale Facilities . . . 149
3.7.1 Ozone systems . . . 149
Contents ix
3.7.2 Ozone contactor . . . 149
3.7.3 Mass transfer efficiency . . . 149
3.7.4 Cost estimates . . . 150
3.7.5 Process control . . . 152
3.8 Case Studies and Regulatory Drivers . . . 153
3.8.1 Drinking water applications . . . 153
3.8.2 Wastewater and potable reuse applications . . . 154
3.9 References . . . 156
Chapter 4 Ozone/H2O2 and ozone/UV processes . . . 163
Alexandra Fischbacher, Holger V. Lutze and Torsten C. Schmidt 4.1 Introduction . . . 163
4.2 O3/H2O2 (Peroxone) Process Fundamentals . . . 163
4.2.1 Mechanism of hydroxyl radical generation . . . 163
4.2.2 O3 and •OH exposures: the Rct concept . . . 165
4.2.3 Reaction kinetics and modeling . . . 167
4.2.4 Water quality impact on process performance: O3 and H2O2 dose selection criteria . . . 169
4.3 O3/H2O2 AOP for Micropollutant Removal . . . 170
4.3.1 Bench-scale research studies . . . 170
4.3.2 Pilot-scale studies . . . 172
4.3.3 Full-scale applications . . . 176
4.3.4 Process economics and limitations . . . 180
4.4 O3/UV Process . . . 182
4.4.1 Process fundamentals . . . 182
4.4.2 Research studies and applications . . . 184
4.5 Byproduct Formation and Mitigation Strategies . . . 185
4.5.1 O3/H2O2 process . . . 185
4.5.2 O3/UV process . . . 187
4.6 Disinfection . . . 188
4.7 References . . . 190
Chapter 5 Vacuum UV radiation-driven processes . . . 195
Tünde Alapi, Krisztina Schrantz, Eszter Arany and Zsuzsanna Kozmér 5.1 Fundamental Principles of Vacuum UV Processes . . . 195
5.1.1 VUV radiation sources for water treatment . . . 195
5.1.2 VUV irradiation of water . . . 201
5.2 Kinetics and Reaction Modeling . . . 206
5.2.1 Reactions and role of primary and secondary formed reactive species . . . 206
5.2.2 Kinetics and mechanistic modeling of VUV AOP . . . 207
5.3 Vacuum UV Radiation for Water Remediation . . . 208
x Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment
5.3.1 VUV for removal of specific compounds . . . 208
5.3.2 VUV in combination with other treatment technologies . . . 213
5.4 Water Quality Impact on Vacuum UV Process Performance and By-product Formation . . . 215
5.4.1 The effect of inorganic ions . . . 215
5.4.2 The effect of dissolved natural organic matter (NOM) . . . 216
5.4.3 Effect of pH . . . 217
5.4.4 By-product formation during the VUV process and their removal through biological activated carbon filtration . . . 218
5.5 Water Disinfection . . . 219
5.6 Reactor/Equipment Design and Economic Considerations . . . 220
5.6.1 Actinometry for VUV photon flow measurements . . . 220
5.6.2 Reactor design . . . 221
5.6.3 Economics considerations . . . 224
5.7 Applications of Vacuum UV Light Sources . . . 225
5.7.1 Applications in instrumental chemical analysis . . . 225
5.7.2 Ultrapure water production . . . 226
5.8 Vacuum UV AOP – General Conclusions . . . 229
5.9 Acknowledgements . . . 229
5.10 References . . . 230
Chapter 6 Gamma-ray and electron beam-based AOPs . . . 241
L. Wojnárovits, E. Takács and L. Szabó 6.1 Introduction . . . 241
6.2 Radiolysis as a Universal Tool to Investigate Radical Reactions and as a Process for Large Scale Industrial Technology . . . 242
6.2.1 Techniques in radiation chemistry for establishing reaction mechanisms 242
6.2.2 Sources of ionizing radiation in water treatment . . . 244
6.2.3 G-value, dosimetric quantities, penetration depth . . . 245
6.3 Water Radiolysis . . . 246
6.3.1 Process fundamentals, yields and reactions of reactive intermediates . . . 246
6.3.2 Reactions of primary species with common inorganic ions . . . 253
6.3.3 Kinetics and modeling of ionizing radiation-induced processes . . . 256
6.3.4 Toxicity of ionizing radiation-treated water . . . 258
6.4 Research Studies on Water Radiolysis-Mediated Degradation of Organic Pollutants 259
6.4.1 Aromatic compounds . . . 259
6.4.2 Endocrine disrupting compounds . . . 262
6.4.3 Pesticides . . . 264
6.4.4 Pharmaceutical compounds . . . 266
6.4.5 Organic dyes . . . 274
6.4.6 Naphthalene sulfonic acid derivatives . . . 275
6.5 Ionizing Radiation for Water Treatment: Pilot- and Industrial Scale Applications . . . . 276
6.5.1 General considerations . . . 276
6.5.2 Ionizing radiation reactors for water treatment . . . 277
Contents xi
6.5.3 Ionizing radiation for water treatment: pilot studies . . . 279
6.5.4 Industrial scale installations using radiation-based AOP . . . 280
6.5.5 Economics . . . 281
6.6 Conclusions .. . . 283
6.7 Acknowledgement .. . . 284
6.8 References . . . 284
Chapter 7 Fenton, photo-Fenton and Fenton-like processes . . . 297
Christopher J. Miller, Susan Wadley, and T. David Waite 7.1 Introduction . . . 297
7.2 Types of Fenton Processes . . . 298
7.2.1 Fenton processes . . . 298
7.2.2 Extended Fenton processes . . . 302
7.2.3 Fenton-like processes . . . 307
7.3 Reaction Kinetics and Process Modelling . . . 307
7.4 Applications and Implications . . . 313
7.4.1 Treatment objectives . . . 313
7.4.2 Types of compounds suited to treatment . . . 314
7.4.3 Process advantages . . . 314
7.4.4 Process limitations . . . 315
7.4.5 Laboratory and pilot plant scale studies . . . 316
7.4.6 Commercial applications . . . 319
7.4.7 Equipment design and economic considerations . . . 320
7.4.8 Process integration . . . 321
7.5 Future Research Needs . . . 323
7.6 References . . . 323
Chapter 8 Photocatalysis as an effective advanced oxidation process . . . 333
Suresh C. Pillai, Niall B. McGuinness, Ciara Byrne, Changseok Han, Jacob Lalley, Mallikarjuna Nadagouda, Polycarpos Falaras, Athanassios G. Kontos, Miguel A. Gracia-Pinilla, Kevin O´Shea, Ramalinga V. Mangalaraja, Christophoros Christophoridis, Theodoros Triantis, Anastasia Hiskia, and Dionysios D. Dionysiou 8.1 Introduction . . . 333
8.2 Process Principles Including the Most Recent Scientific Findings and Interpretation 334
8.2.1 Nanotubular titania-based materials for photocatalytic water and air purification . . . 334
8.2.2 Magnetically separable photocatalysts . . . 337
8.2.3 Improving the photocatalytic activity . . . 339
8.3 Classes of Compounds Suitable to Treatment and Examples of Reaction Mechanisms . . . 345
8.4 Kinetic Aspects, Reaction Modelling, Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) . . . 351
xii Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment
8.5 Water Quality Impact on Process Preformance, Practical Considerations on Process
Parameter Selection Criteria . . . 356
8.6 Process Limitations and Byproduct Formation; Strategies to Mitigate the Adverse Effects on the Treated Water Quality . . . 358
8.7 Reactor/Equipment Design and Economic Considerations, Figures-of-Merit . . . 362
8.8 Case Studies Relevant to Process Implementation to Water Treatment . . . 363
8.8.1 Contaminated groundwater with 1,4-dioxane and volatile organic solvents, Sarasota, Florida, USA (2013) . . . 364
8.8.2 1,4-Dioxane and VOCs destruction in drinking water, Southern US water district (2013) . . . 364
8.8.3 Removal of chromium (Cr6+) in groundwater, Superfund site in Odessa, Texas, USA (2013) . . . 364
8.9 Commercial Applications . . . 365
8.9.1 Global market and standards . . . 365
8.9.2 Drinking water regulations driving the process implementation . . . 365
8.9.3 Commercialization technologies . . . 366
8.9.4 Companies and products . . . 368
8.10 Future Research Needs . . . 368
8.11 Disclaimer . . . 369
8.12 Acknowledgements . . . 370
8.13 References . . . 370
Chapter 9 UV/Chlorine process . . . 383
Joseph De Laat and Mihaela Stefan 9.1 Introduction . . . 383
9.2 Photodecomposition of Free Chlorine by UV Light . . . 384
9.2.1 Distribution of free chlorine species . . . 384
9.2.2 Absorption spectra of free chlorine species in water . . . 384
9.2.3 Radical species, quantum yields and degradation mechanisms of free chlorine . . . 385
9.3 Reactivity and Fate of Chlorine Radicals . . . 396
9.3.1 Equilibria involving the Cl•, Cl2•− and •OH species . . . 396
9.3.2 Termination reactions of •OH, Cl• and Cl2•− in water . . . 397
9.3.3 Reactivity of Cl• and Cl2•− towards organic and inorganic compounds . . . 398
9.4 UV/Cl2 Process for Contaminant Removal from Water . . . 404
9.4.1 Degradation pathways of organic compounds . . . 404
9.4.2 Kinetic modeling of UV/Cl2 AOP . . . 407
9.4.3 The impact of selected parameters on UV/Cl2 process performance . . . 408
9.4.4 UV/Cl2 versus UV/H2O2 . . . 412
9.4.5 Byproduct formation in the UV/Cl2 AOP . . . 420
9.5 Research Needs . . . 423
9.6 Conclusions . . . 423
9.7 Acknowledgement . . . 424
9.8 References . . . 424
Contents xiii Chapter 10
Sulfate radical ion – based AOPs . . . 429
Nathalie Karpel Vel Leitner 10.1 Introduction . . . 429
10.2 Methods for Sulfate Radical Generation . . . 429
10.2.1 Mild-thermal and base activation of persulfate . . . 430
10.2.2 Photochemical processes . . . 430
10.2.3 Transition metal-activated decomposition of persulfate salts . . . 431
10.2.4 Miscellaneous processes . . . 432
10.3 Properties and Stability of Sulfate Radical in Pure Water . . . 434
10.3.1 Oxidation-reduction potential . . . 434
10.3.2 pH dependence . . . 435
10.4 Reaction Mechanisms with Organic Molecules in Pure Water . . . 436
10.4.1 Hydrogen-abstraction reactions . . . 437
10.4.2 Electron transfer reactions . . . 438
10.4.3 Addition to unsaturated bonds . . . 441
10.5 Sulfate Radical-Based Treatment of Water Micropollutants . . . 442
10.5.1 Pesticides . . . 444
10.5.2 Pharmaceuticals . . . 444
10.5.3 Algal toxins and taste-and-odor (T&O) causing compounds . . . 444
10.5.4 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) . . . 445
10.5.5 Perfluorinated compounds . . . 446
10.6 Reactions with Water Matrix Constituents in Sulfate Radical-Driven Oxidations . . . 447
10.6.1 Reactions with inorganic compounds . . . 447
10.6.2 Reactions in natural waters . . . 450
10.7 Commercial Applications . . . 453
10.7.1 Total organic carbon (TOC) analyzers . . . 453
10.7.2 In Situ Chemical Oxidation (ISCO) . . . 453
10.7.3 Other applications . . . 454
10.8 Future Research Needs . . . 454
10.9 Conclusions . . . 455
10.10 Acknowledgements . . . 455
10.11 References . . . 455
Chapter 11 Ultrasound wave-based AOPs . . . 461
O. A. Larpparisudthi, T. J. Mason and L. Paniwnyk 11.1 Introduction . . . 461
11.2 Principles of Sonochemistry . . . 461
11.3 Acoustic Cavitation, the Driving Force for Sonochemistry . . . 463
11.3.1 Homogeneous liquid-phase systems . . . 464
11.3.2 Heterogeneous solid surface-liquid systems . . . 465
11.3.3 Heterogeneous particle-liquid systems . . . 466
11.3.4 Heterogeneous liquid-liquid systems . . . 466
xiv Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment
11.4 Historical Introduction on the Oxidative Properties of Ultrasound in Water . . . 466
11.5 Sonochemical Decontamination of Aqueous Systems . . . 468
11.5.1 AOP involving ultrasound alone . . . 468
11.5.2 AOP involving ultrasound combined with ozone . . . 473
11.5.3 AOP involving ultrasound combined with ultraviolet light . . . 477
11.5.4 AOP involving ultrasound combined with electrochemistry . . . 479
11.6 Ultrasonic Equipment and Prospects for Scale Up . . . 480
11.7 Conclusions . . . 485
11.8 References . . . 485
Chapter 12 Electrical discharge plasma for water treatment . . . . 493
Selma Mededovic Thagard and Bruce R. Locke 12.1 Introduction – Plasma Processes for Water Treatment . . . 493
12.2 Indirect Plasma – Ozone Generation . . . 495
12.3 Direct Plasma – Plasma Directly Contacts Liquid Solution . . . 498
12.3.1 Chemical species formed . . . 500
12.3.2 H2O2 generation . . . 501
12.3.3 OH radical generation . . . 502
12.3.4 Data on model compounds . . . 503
12.3.5 Thermal plasma chemistry in direct water discharges . . . 515
12.3.6 Plasma process scale-up . . . 516
12.3.7 Inactivation of biological species . . . 519
12.4 Conclusions . . . 520
12.5 Acknowledgements . . . 521
12.6 References . . . 521
Chapter 13 The role of photochemistry in the transformation of pollutants in surface waters . . . 535
Douglas E. Latch 13.1 Introduction . . . 535
13.2 Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface . . . 535
13.2.1 The solar spectrum . . . 535
13.2.2 Diurnal, seasonal, and latitudinal variations . . . 536
13.2.3 Light attenuation and depth dependence of photochemical reactions . . . 537
13.3 Types of Photochemical Reactions in Surface Waters . . . 537
13.3.1 Direct photochemistry . . . 537
13.3.2 Indirect photochemistry . . . 540
13.4 Laboratory Methods and Techniques for Studying Pollutant Photochemistry . . . 542
13.5 Photochemically Produced Reactive Intermediates (PPRIs) and the Role of Organic Matter in Indirect Photochemistry . . . 546
13.5.1 Hydroxyl radical (•OH) . . . 546
13.5.2 Excited state triplet organic matter (3OM) . . . 547
Contents xv
13.5.3 Singlet oxygen (1O2) . . . 549
13.5.4 Hydrated electron (
e
aq−−), superoxide radical anion (O
2i−−), and hydrogen peroxide . . . 54913.5.5 Carbonate radical (
CO
3i−−) . . . 55013.5.6 Organoperoxyl radicals (•OOR) . . . 550
13.6 Salinity Effects on Photochemical Reactions in Natural Waters . . . 550
13.7 Ranitidine and Cimetidine: An Illustrative Surface Water Photochemistry Example . . . 551
13.8 Select Photochemically Active Aquatic Pollutants . . . 553
13.8.1 Pharmaceuticals . . . 554
13.8.2 Agrochemicals . . . 558
13.8.3 Other photochemically active pollutants detected in surface waters . . . 560
13.9 Notable Examples of Aquatic Pollutants Transformed through Photochemical Reactions . . . 561
13.9.1 Triclosan . . . 561
13.9.2 Steroid hormones and related EDCs . . . 564
13.9.3 Waterborne viruses and similar model pathogens . . . 566
13.10 Future Research Needs . . . 567
13.11 Acknowledgements . . . 567
13.12 References . . . 568
Chapter 14 Advanced treatment for potable water reuse . . . 581
Stuart J. Khan, Troy Walker, Benjamin D. Stanford and Jörg E. Drewes 14.1 Planned Potable Water Reuse . . . 581
14.2 Treatment Objectives and Drivers for the Adoption of AOPs in Potable Reuse . . . . 583
14.2.1 Pathogen inactivation . . . 585
14.2.2 Trace chemical contaminants . . . 586
14.3 Validation and Process Control . . . 589
14.4 Process Performance . . . 590
14.5 International Examples of AOP Use in Potable Reuse Projects . . . 592
14.5.1 Groundwater Replenishment System, Orange County, CA, USA (2008) 592
14.5.2 Western Corridor Recycled Water Project, Queensland, Australia (2008) . . . 594
14.5.3 Prairie Waters Project, Aurora, CO, USA (2010) . . . 597
14.5.4 Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant (South Africa) . . . 598
14.5.5 Terminal Island Water Reclamation Plant, Los Angeles, CA, USA (2016) 598
14.6 Conclusions and Future Projections . . . 601
14.7 References . . . 602
Chapter 15 Advanced treatment for drinking water production . . . 607
Gilbert Galjaard, Bram Martijn, Erik Koreman and Holly Shorney-Darby 15.1 Introduction . . . 607
15.2 UV/H2O2 Process: Andijk Water Treatment Plant (WTP) Case Study . . . 608
xvi Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment
15.3 Pretreatment Strategies for AOP in Drinking Water Treatment . . . 611
15.3.1 Enhanced coagulation . . . 612
15.3.2 Ion exchange . . . 613
15.3.3 Ceramic membranes and hybrid combinations . . . 618
15.4 The Effect of Pretreatment on MP UV/H2O2 AOP . . . 621
15.5 Side Effects of MP UV/H2O2 AOP and Mitigation Strategies . . . 623
15.6 References . . . 627
Chapter 16 AOPs for municipal and industrial wastewater treatment . . . 631
Jianlong Wang and Lejin Xu 16.1 Introduction . . . 631
16.2 Municipal Wastewater Treatment . . . 632
16.3 Industrial Wastewater Treatment . . . 634
16.3.1 Textile wastewater . . . 635
16.3.2 Pharmaceutical wastewater . . . 637
16.3.3 Pesticide wastewater . . . 640
16.3.4 Paper mill wastewater . . . 645
16.3.5 Petrochemical wastewater . . . 648
16.3.6 Landfill leachate . . . 651
16.3.7 Other pollutants . . . 654
16.4 Economic Analysis . . . 658
16.5 Concluding Remarks and Prospects . . . 659
16.6 References . . . 660
Chapter 17 Iron-based green technologies for water remediation . . . 667
Virender K. Sharma and Radek Zboril 17.1 Introduction . . . 667
17.2 Zerovalent Iron Nanoparticles . . . 668
17.3 Iron(III) Oxide Nanoparticles . . . 669
17.4 Ferrates . . . 670
17.4.1 Disinfection . . . 672
17.4.2 Oxidation . . . 672
17.4.3 Coagulation . . . 675
17.5 Conclusions and Future Outlook . . . 675
17.6 Acknowledgment . . . 676
17.7 References . . . 676
Index . . . .681
