INTRODUCING MASTERY LEARNING STRATEGIES INTO T H E HUNGARIAN HIGHER EDUCATION

INTRODUCING MASTERY LEARNING STRATEGIES INTO T H E HUNGARIAN HIGHER EDUCATION

Benö Csapö

D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n , A t t i l a Jözsef U n i v e r s i t y Szeged, H u n g a r y

Abstract

O n e o f the m o s t e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i m e n t s i n t h e H u n g a r i a n h i g h e r education w a s carried o u t b e t w e e n 1 9 8 0 - 8 6 i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l colleges and u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e e x p e r i m e n t w a s based o n the principles o f B l o o m ' s M a s t e r y L e a r n i n g and K e l l e r ' s P e r s o n a l i z e d S y s t e m o f I n s t r u c - t i o n . I n the e x p e r i m e n t , the d o m i n a n c e o f t r a d i t i o n a l lectures and seminars w a s changed and systematic feedback m e c h a n i s m s w e r e introduced, t h e i n s t r u c t i o n focused o n f a c i l i t a t i n g students' active l e a r n i n g . D u r i n g t h e f i v e years o f the e x p e r i m e n t , 1596 students t o o k part i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n s t r u c t i o n . D a t a o n 7 3 courses w e r e collected and analyzed. T h i s paper presents t h e m a i n results o f the e x p e r i m e n t s and d r a w s its conclusions f o r t h e present re- f o r m s o f h i g h e r education. I t discusses h o w teachers and students can be i n v o l v e d i n the r e - f o r m process, h o w t r a d i t i o n a l and n e w m e t h o d s can be c o m b i n e d i n the i n s t r u c t i o n a n d h o w the i n s t r u c t i o n a l c u l t u r e o f h i g h e r education can step b y step be changed.

Introduction

Since t h e first E u r o p e a n u n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e established a r o u n d 7 0 0 years ago, v e r y f e w changes h a v e t a k e n place i n the teaching m e t h o d s o f h i g h e r education. Lectures h a v e been t h e m a i n vehicles o f t r a n s m i t t i n g k n o w l e d g e and d u r i n g the m a i n phase o f i n s t r u c t i o n , stu- dents' r o l e has n o t been m o r e t h a n the passive reception o f k n o w l e d g e . T h e p r o b l e m s h a v e been k n o w n f o r centuries, t o o , h o w e v e r remedies h a v e n o t been f o u n d o r w e r e i m p o s s i b l e t o apply. A quote f r o m Loránd Eötvös, one o f the m o s t p r o m i n e n t scientists o f the last c e n t u r y , illustrates t h i s o n g o i n g p r o b l e m . H e w r o t e i n 1887:

A tanár a fönnálló rendszer m e l l e t t n e m képes meggyőződni arról, bírják-e követ­

n i hallgatói, s h a látja i s a z üresedő p a ­ d o k o n , h o g y a tanulók érdekeltsége csökken, n i n c s e n módjában e b a j o n se­

gíteni. Szomorú d o l o g az, a m i k o r a tanár a tanulóért többet n e m tehet, m i n t h o g y indexét a félév elején és végén aláírja, s azután a vizsgálaton k i h a l l g a t j a anélkül, h o g y tanulmányainak menetére tényleg befolyást g y a k o r o l t v o l n a .

W i t h i n the e x i s t i n g system, a professor can­

n o t be sure i f his students are able t o f o l l o w h i m , and w h e n h e sees i n t h e e m p t y i n g lec­

ture h a l l that students' interest i s d e c l i n i n g , he is n o t i n the p o s i t i o n o f h e l p i n g t h e m . I t i s a sad t h i n g , w h e n a teacher cannot d o m o r e f o r the students t h a n s i g n i n g t h e i r cards at the b e g i n n i n g and at the end o f the semester and t h e n listen t o t h e m at t h e e x a m i n a t i o n w i t h o u t h a v i n g a real i n f l u e n c e o n t h e proc­

ess o f t h e i r study.

B y t h e e n d o f the 1970s, this p r o b l e m became e v i d e n t i n s o m e H u n g a r i a n h i g h e r educa­

t i o n institutions. T h e s i t u a t i o n w a s especially crucial i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l colleges a n d u n i v e r ­ sities. Because o f t h e decreasing n u m b e r o f the students a p p l y i n g t o these i n s t i t u t i o n s , the entrance c r i t e r i a w e r e l o w e r e d and the p o o r i n i t i a l k n o w l e d g e o f the students resulted i n a large p r o p o r t i o n o f failure d u r i n g the first semesters.

A d d r e s s i n g t h i s p r o b l e m , b e t w e e n 1980-86 a large-scale e x p e r i m e n t w a s carried o u t i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l colleges and universities t o e x a m i n e the effectiveness o f m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g strategies i n h i g h e r education. T h e objectives o f the e x p e r i m e n t w e r e ( 1 ) t o d e v e l o p o p t i m a l v e r s i o n s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l strategies, ( 2 ) t o devise the necessary e v a l u a t i o n m e t h o d s and t o o l s , and ( 3 ) t o measure the effectiveness o f these strategies.

T h e project w a s i n i t i a t e d and financed b y the M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e a n d t h e present a u t h o r w a s asked t o be t h e director o f the project. A l t h o u g h the project a i m e d a t s o l v i n g practical p r o b l e m s , the w h o l e e x p e r i m e n t w a s designed, a d m i n i s t e r e d a n d d o c u m e n t e d ac­

c o r d i n g t o the standards o f educational research. T h e results o f the project w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n several technical reports and papers and the c o m p r e h e n s i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t appeared i n a b o o k f o r m a t (Csapó, 1 9 8 8 ) . T h i s paper s u m m a r i z e s the m a i n results presented i n t h i s b o o k .

Theoretical Framework

I n the 1960s, Mastery Learning w a s one o f the m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l ideas i n t h e f i e l d o f educa­

t i o n a l i n n o v a t i o n s . T h e idea, elaborated b y B e n j a m i n B l o o m ( 1 9 6 8 ) , w a s based o n C a r r o l l ' s ( 1 9 6 3 ) p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t instead o f teaching students u n i f o r m l y , the l e v e l students h a v e t o reach s h o u l d be d e f i n e d a n d the w a y s o f teaching s h o u l d be adapted t o the i n d i v i d u a l needs o f students t o h e l p t h e m t o reach the pre-determined m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n . B l o o m applied Car­

r o l l ' s m o d e l t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m c l a s s r o o m i n s t r u c t i o n and i n i t i a t e d a w a v e o f e x p e r i m e n t s b o t h inside the U S A and i n other countries as w e l l ( B l o c k , 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 4 ) . A n o t h e r s i m i l a r i n ­ n o v a t i o n w a s K e l l e r ' s Personalized System of Instruction that w a s m o s t l y applied i n t h e A m e r i c a n h i g h e r education ( K e l l e r , 1968; S h e r m a n , 1 9 7 4 ) .

T h e s e conceptions and practical developments c o n c e r n i n g M a s t e r y L e a r n i n g w e r e i n t e n ­ s i v e l y r e v i e w e d i n H u n g a r y as w e l l (Csapo, 1977, 1978, 1 9 8 0 ) and b y the end o f t h e 1970s,

t h e y b e c a m e b r o a d l y k n o w n a m o n g the H u n g a r i a n educators. T h e possibilities o f the a p p l i - c a t i o n o f these strategies w e r e o f t e n proposed and later began e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h these strategies (Csapo, 1 9 8 3 ; N a g y , 1 9 8 2 ) .

P R E C O M P E N S A T I O N

T H E M A I N P A R T O F I N S T R U C T I O N

P O S T C O M P E N S A T I O N

Figure 1

The general scheme of learning units

B l o o m ' s M a s t e r y L e a r n i n g and K e l l e r ' s Personalized S y s t e m o f I n s t r u c t i o n , w e r e inte- grated i n t o a m o d e l , u s i n g t h e cybernetic and system-theoretical approach t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e generalized m o d e l has s o m e w e l l - d e f i n e d elements and parameters (see F i g u r e 1).

T h e elements o f m a s t e r y learning, as t h e y w e r e applied i n the e x p e r i m e n t , are as f o l l o w s : 1) T h e semesters w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o s m a l l e r l e a r n i n g u n i t s , l e a r n i n g tasks.

2 ) E a c h u n i t started w i t h a f o r m a t i v e pre-test t o assess i f students possess t h e pre- requisite k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e d f o r understanding and successful m a s t e r i n g t h e learn- i n g m a t e r i a l o f the u n i t .

3 ) Students n o t r e a c h i n g the c r i t e r i o n o n the pre-test attended pre-compensation.

4 ) T h e m a i n part o f the i n s t r u c t i o n w a s n o t changed s i g n i f i c a n t l y . I n t h i s phase the i n - struction w a s c o n t i n u e d i n the usual w a y s (lectures, seminars, etc.). T h e m o d i f i c a t i o n w a s that t h i s phase w a s shortened t o a c c o m m o d a t e the other elements o f a m a s t e r y strategy.

5 ) T h e m a i n part o f the i n s t r u c t i o n w a s f o l l o w e d b y a post-test t o assess h o w w e l l the students m a s t e r e d t h e n e w materials.

6 ) Students n o t r e a c h i n g the c r i t e r i o n o n the post-test attended p o s t - c o m p e n s a t i o n . A large n u m b e r o f concrete v a r i a t i o n s o f the m o d e l w e r e used i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t . T h e actual i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s d i f f e r e d i n the w a y o f c o m b i n a t i o n o f these elements a n d t h e values o f the parameters. F o r e x a m p l e , several types o f pre- a n d post-tests w e r e used f r o m short self-evaluated f o r m a t i v e tests t o m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d detailed a c h i e v e m e n t tests. T h e c o m p e n s a t o r y m e t h o d s w e r e adapted t o the specificity o f the course. I f a large n u m b e r o f students failed o n the pre-test, the prerequisite k n o w l e d g e w a s f o r m a l l y t a u g h t t h r o u g h a v a ­ r i e t y o f strategies. T h e s e i n c l u d e d large group i n s t r u c t i o n , peer t u t o r i n g , i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p t u t o r i n g b y the teachers, i n d i v i d u a l assignments a n d h o m e w o r k , i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p projects, specific exercises, c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s .

T h e .one-semester-long courses w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o several u n i t s a n d t h e n u m b e r o f l e a r n ­ i n g u n i t s per semester v a r i e d u s u a l l y f r o m three t o t e n , s o the l e n g t h o f l e a r n i n g task t y p i ­ c a l l y v a r i e d f r o m one w e e k t o t w o m o n t h s . T h e n u m b e r o f possible repetitions o f failed tests a n d t h e c r i t e r i o n o f m a s t e r y also v a r i e d f r o m course t o course, u s u a l l y test retakes w e r e b e t w e e n t w o a n d four. T h e c r i t e r i o n o f m a s t e r y ranged f r o m 6 0 t o 9 0 % .

Methods and Techniques

T h e e x p e r i m e n t w a s conducted i n f o u r a g r i c u l t u r a l colleges a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s . N i n e t e e n dif­

ferent courses w e r e i n v o l v e d from the disciplines o f m a t h e m a t i c s , computer-science, p h y s ­ ics, c h e m i s t r y a n d i n d u s t r i a l d r a w i n g a n d design. T h e basic b l o c k o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t w a s the one-semester course a n d these semesters as w h o l e w e r e d o c u m e n t e d . B e t w e e n 1 9 8 1 a n d

1 9 8 6 t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n a g i v e n course w a s repeated three t o f i v e t i m e s , so that altogether data exists o n 7 3 d i f f e r e n t semesters. T h e s e semesters together i n v o l v e d 3 4 4 l e a r n i n g u n i t s , each e n d i n g w i t h a post-test. T h e results f r o m these 3 4 4 post-testing periods w e r e d o c u m e n t e d , a n d data o n t h e results o f ca. 4 0 , 0 0 0 tests a d m i n i s t e r e d t o the participat­

i n g students w e r e processed. D u r i n g the five years, 1596 students t o o k part i n the e x p e r i ­ m e n t a l i n s t r u c t i o n .

T a k i n g i n t o account t h e a i m s , c o m p l e x i t y a n d extent o f the e x p e r i m e n t , n o c o n t r o l groups w e r e applied. H o w e v e r , since several testings t o o k place i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l semes­

ters, several w a y s t o estimate t h e y i e l d s a n d a d d i t i o n a l benefits o f t h e m e t h o d s used d u r i n g the e x p e r i m e n t can be applied.

T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l courses w e r e d o c u m e n t e d i n a u n i f o r m w a y a n d t h e results o f a l l tests w e r e entered i n t o a c o m p u t e r f o r statistical analyses. T h e basic e l e m e n t o f the data-base w a s the o u t c o m e o f a single test. E a c h test-result w a s represented as the percentage o f t h e m a x i ­ m u m score. T h e data base a l l o w e d a large n u m b e r different analyses. S e v e r a l aggregations w e r e c o m p u t e d a n d d i f f e r e n t c o m p a r i s o n s w e r e possible b e t w e e n the frequency d i s t r i b u ­ t i o n s o f t h e test achievements, depending o n the discipline and the d i f f e r e n t parameters o f the strategies (see Csapo, 1 9 8 8 ) . I n t h i s paper o n l y representative e x a m p l e s o f the particular l e a r n i n g u n i t s a n d s o m e c o m p r e h e n s i v e results w i l l be presented. T h e frequency d i s t r i b u -

t i o n s o f the results o f the l e a r n i n g u n i t s w e r e c o m p u t e d as f o l l o w s : ( 1 ) t h e frequency d i s t r i - b u t i o n s o f the post-tests, ( 2 ) those after the first r e p e t i t i o n o f testing, a n d ( 3 ) those after the final r e p e t i t i o n o f testing.

Results and Discussion

I n c r e a s e d p e r f o r m a n c e s

S o m e e x a m p l e f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t demonstrate the results o f the i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e ef- fectiveness o f m a s t e r y strategies c a n best b e s h o w n t h r o u g h t h e students' a c h i e v e m e n t m e a s u r e d at the e n d o f the l e a r n i n g u n i t s . W h e n c o m p a r i n g t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f the post- tests a n d the repeated post-tests after the c o m p e n s a t i o n , the benefits o f the c o m p e n s a t i o n are o b v i o u s .

O u t o f the 3 4 4 l e a r n i n g u n i t s a n a l y z e d i n a u n i f o r m w a y , t w o w i l l b e presented here.

F i g u r e 2 a n d F i g u r e 3 depict t h e results i n l e a r n i n g u n i t s o f t w o different courses. B o t h f i g - ures represent the results o f the first l e a r n i n g u n i t o f the particular course. T h e i n i t i a l l e v e l o f the students' k n o w l e d g e can be observed here.

3 0

%

• P o s t - t e s t • F i r s t r e p e a t e d p o s t - t e s t • L a s t r e p e a t e d p o s t - t e s t

2 0

n

1 0

0 - 0 9 1 0 ¬ 1 9

2 0 ¬ 2 9

3 0 ¬ 3 9

4 0 ¬ 4 9

5 0 ¬ 5 9

6 0 ¬ 6 9

7 0 ¬ 7 9

8 0 ¬ 8 9

9 0 ¬ 1 0 0

Figure 2

The results of the first learning unit in a mathematics course (Csapo, 1988. p. 27.)

4 0 x

% • P o s t - t e s t B F i r s t r e p e a t e d p o s t - t e s t • L a s t r e p e a t e d p o s t - t e s t

0 - 9 1 0 ¬

1 9 2 0 ¬

2 9 3 0 ¬

3 9 4 0 ¬

4 9 5 0 ¬

5 9 6 0 ¬

6 9 7 0 ¬

7 9 8 0 ¬

8 9 9 0 ¬ 1 0 0

Figure 3

The results of the first learning unit in a physics course (Csapo, 1988. p. 28.) T h e figures s h o w frequency distributions o f the students' a c h i e v e m e n t s at the e n d o f the l e a r n i n g u n i t s . T h r e e a c h i e v e m e n t are depicted at each figures: ( 1 ) t h e post-test results, ( 2 ) the results after the first c o m p e n s a t i o n a n d ( 3 ) the final results after the last c o m p e n s a t i o n cycle.

1) A t first, t h e post-test results w e r e analyzed. T h e s e results indicate the a c h i e v e m e n t l e v e l w i t h o u t the c o m p e n s a t i o n . Since n o c o n t r o l groups w e r e applied, i t i s n o t possible t o t e l l w h a t w o u l d b e the a c h i e v e m e n t i n the same course i n the t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e students i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t w e n t t h r o u g h the p r e - c o m p e n s a t i o n phases. S o t h e y u n d e r s t o o d m o r e f r o m the i n s t r u c t i o n and, therefore, t h e i r achievements o n the post-tests w e r e p r o b a b l y better t h a n t h e y w o u l d h a v e been w i t h o u t the pre-compensation. H o w e v e r , the achievements i n t h i s first assessment can b e considered as a p o i n t o f reference t o estimate the a d d i t i o n a l benefits o f the m a s t e r y m e t h o d s , a n d at least t o measure the effects o f the c o m p e n s a t i o n .

2 ) N e x t , t h e results o f the testing after the first c o m p e n s a t i o n p e r i o d are indicated.

T h o s e students w h o d i d n o t achieve t h e m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n i n the post-test, participated i n the c o m p e n s a t i o n sessions. T h e s e sessions w h i c h dealt o n l y w i t h the m a t e r i a l students failed t o master, w e r e facilitated a large n u m b e r o f different w a y s . T h e n students w e r e tested again w i t h tests ( u s u a l l y a p a r a l l e l , e q u i v a l e n t v e r s i o n o f the o r i g i n a l post-test) that c o v e r e d the w h o l e l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l again. T h e r e f o r e t h e i r achievements can be c o m p a r e d w i t h the post- test results. A t t h i s phase, t h e achievements o f t h e w h o l e group are considered again. D a t a f o r those students w h o reached the m a s t e r y l e v e l o n the first testing a n d d i d n o t t a k e the second test, are i n v o l v e d i n the statistical analysis. T h u s , this part o f the f i g u r e demonstates t h e l e v e l o f m a s t e r y o f t h e w h o l e g r o u p o f the students after the first c o m p e n s a t i o n p e r i o d .

C o m p a r i n g t h e t w o frequency distributions s h o w s h o w m u c h students benefited f r o m one single c o m p e n s a t i o n cycle.

3) D e p e n d i n g o n the actual i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the m a s t e r y strategy, those w h o f a i l e d the repeated post-test ( n o t reaching the m a s t e r y l e v e l again) attended o n e o r m o r e further c o m - pensation periods and testing cycles. T h e figures also present t h e results o f testing after the last c o m p e n s a t i o n p e r i o d , s h o w i n g the k n o w l e d g e l e v e l students f i n a l l y reached before p r o - ceeding t o t h e n e x t u n i t .

T u r n i n g t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e concrete l e a r n i n g u n i t s presented here significant ef- fects o f c o m p e n s a t i o n can b e observed i n b o t h cases. I n m a t h e m a t i c s , as i t w a s w e l l k n o w n before the e x p e r i m e n t , the a c h i e v e m e n t o f the students w a s v e r y l o w . A s t h e w h i t e c o l u m n s indicate, t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e students achieved under 3 0 % o n the post-test and o n l y v e r y f e w w e r e a b o v e t h e 4 0 % l e v e l . T h o s e students, w h o studied i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l colleges, came t o these i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h v e r y p o o r m a t h e m a t i c a l k n o w l e d g e , a n d a l o t o f t h e m f a i l e d a n d d r o p p e d o u t i n t h e first semester. H o w e v e r , m a t h e m a t i c s i s a n essential discipline i n these institutions. M a t h e m a t i c s k n o w l e d g e students are supposed t o learn w i l l later be applied i n several other courses. L e a r n i n g j u s t 2 0 - 3 0 % o f the content o f m a t h c u r r i c u l u m m a k e s suc- cess i m p o s s i b l e later i n t h e other courses. A c t u a l l y , t h i s p h e n o m e n o n w a s o n e o f the factors t h a t m o t i v a t e d the search f o r m o r e intensive teaching m e t h o d s and the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g strategies. T h u s , after diagnosing students' weaknesses c a m e t h e r e m e d y : i n t h i s case re-teaching the c r i t i c a l parts o f the m a t e r i a l and i n t e n s i v e t u t o r i n g o f the p o o r a c h i e v i n g students b y the instructors. A s the gray c o l u m n s indicate, the first c o m p e n s a t i o n cycle already h e l p e d a large n u m b e r o f students t o master at least h a l f o f t h e m a t e r i a l . T h e n another attempt w a s m a d e t o h e l p those w h o needed a d d i t i o n a l help b y p r o v i d i n g t h i s s m a l l e r g r o u p o f f a i l i n g students m o r e intense assistance. T h i s c o m p e n s a t o r y p e r i o d i n - creased the k n o w l e d g e o f students s i g n i f i c a n t l y again. T h e b l a c k c o l u m n s indicate students' f i n a l k n o w l e d g e i n t h i s l e a r n i n g u n i t . A s the figure indicates, e v e n i n t h i s w a y , n o t e v e r y student reached t h e 6 0 % m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n . H o w e v e r , t a k i n g i n t o account the v e r y p o o r i n i - t i a l l e v e l , a n d c o m p a r i n g t h e first and last testing (the d i s t r i b u t i o n depicted b y the w h i t e and b l a c k c o l u m n s ) , i t can be concluded that t h e i m p r o v e m e n t is massive, a n y w a y .

T h e l e a r n i n g u n i t f r o m the physics course i s a n e x a m p l e f o r a different s i t u a t i o n . T h e students' i n i t i a l k n o w l e d g e w a s v e r y heterogeneous ( F i g u r e 3 ) . T h e w h i t e c o l u m n s indicate a b i m o d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f achievements. A l t h o u g h the m a j o r i t y o f the students r e m a i n u n d e r t h e 5 0 % l e v e l , a significant n u m b e r o f students achieved above the m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n o f 7 0 % . I n t h i s case, h i g h a c h i e v i n g students w e r e i n v o l v e d i n the c o m p e n s a t i o n process b y t u t o r i n g t h e i r l o w a c h i e v i n g class-mates. A s the gray c o l u m n s indicate, already after the first c o m p e n s a t i o n cycle t h e large mass o f v e r y l o w a c h i e v i n g students disappeared and t h e n , after the second c o m p e n s a t i o n p e r i o d a l m o s t 8 0 % o f the students achieved above 7 0 % .

A c h i e v i n g w e l l i n the first l e a r n i n g u n i t s w a s especially i m p o r t a n t a n d h a d l o n g - l a s t i n g effects. W h e n a firm k n o w l e d g e base w a s established, less t i m e w a s n e e d e d f o r the pre- c o m p e n s a t i o n , a n d also m o r e students passed the m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n o n t h e first post-test. S o , b y t h e e n d o f the semester, the s y s t e m w o r k e d m o r e s m o o t h l y and t h e e x t r a t i m e i n v e s t e d i n the first l e a r n i n g u n i t s c o u l d be regained.

A s t h e semesters advanced, several p o s i t i v e by-effects w e r e also observed. Since several r e w a r d s w e r e o f f e r e d f o r t h e h i g h a c h i e v i n g students (e.g. t h e y c o u l d s k i p s o m e o t h e r w i s e m a n d a t o r y activities, d u r i n g the c o m p e n s a t i o n periods t h e y h a d free t i m e , h i g h test p e r f o r m -

ances w e r e t a k e n i n t o account i n the final e x a m s ) and s o m e measures o r sanctions w e r e t a k e n against the n o t o r i o u s l o w achievers (e.g. several c o m p u l s o r y extra a c t i v i t i e s ) , students attitudes changed. T h e y learned the n e w rules, and those w h o j u s t w a n t e d t o pass the e x a m s w i t h m i n i m a l efforts r e a l i z e d that h i g h performances w e r e expected and t h e y c o u l d n o t es­

cape, s o i t w a s i n t h e i r best interest t o m e e t o r exceed the m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n as s o o n as possi­

ble.

T o evaluate t h e results o f the w h o l e e x p e r i m e n t a l project, the test performances o f the l e a r n i n g u n i t s w e r e aggregated i n several w a y s . T e s t scores w e r e added u p f o r w h o l e se­

mesters and figures s i m i l a r t o the above ones w e r e c o m p i l e d . S i m i l a r l y , data characterizing a w h o l e i n s t i t u t i o n w e r e also c o m p u t e d .

W h e n the data f o r w h o l e academic years w e r e computed, the e x p e r i m e n t a l years c o u l d also be compared. F o r e x a m p l e , researchers f o u n d that, as the faculty b e c a m e m o r e e x p e r i ­ enced i n r u n n i n g the n e w system, students' performances i m p r o v e d y e a r b y year. ( F o r the details, see Csapó, 1 9 8 8 . )

D a t a w e r e also added f o r the same disciplines across the i n s t i t u t i o n s and e x p e r i m e n t a l years. F o r e x a m p l e , the p r o p o r t i o n s o f the students w h o f i n a l l y achieved above the 8 0 % l e v e l a n d those w h o achieved above 7 0 % ( i n c l . the p r e v i o u s g r o u p ) after the last compensa­

t i o n cycle, are presented i n T a b l e 1.

Table 1. The proportions of students who reached the 70% and 80% achievement level

D i s c i p l i n e S t u d e n t s a b o v e 7 0 % S t u d e n t s a b o v e 8 0 %

C h e m i s t r y 8 8 . 5 % 5 6 . 1 %

M a t h e m a t i c s a n d c o m p u t e r - s c i e n c e 7 1 . 9 % 4 3 . 0 %

I n d u s t r i a l d r a w i n g a n d d e s i g n 6 3 . 8 % 5 3 . 3 %

P h y s i c s 3 9 . 6 % 2 8 . 0 %

A s the data s h o w , t h e m a s t e r y strategies w o r k e d quite w e l l i n c h e m i s t r y and m a t h e m a t ­ ics, b u t the f i n a l results s t i l l w e r e l o w i n physics. T h e p o o r results i n physics can be e x ­ p l a i n e d b y the fact, t h a t i t w a s n o t considered a n essential discipline i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l ­ leges, s o less effort w a s invested t o i m p r o v e the efficiency o f physics courses. T h e s e figures also indicate, that h i g h performances can be achieved e v e n i n the m o s t p r o b l e m a t i c field:

m a t h e m a t i c s . F u r t h e r m o r e , 7 0 % seems a m o r e realistic m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n t h a n the 8 0 % . Since the n u m b e r o f students w h o participated i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l i n s t r u c t i o n v a r i e d b r o a d l y b y disciplines, and o n l y a f e w students attended physics, t h e o v e r a l l results o f the entire e x p e r i m e n t are better t h a n T a b l e 1 suggests. Taking into account all 73 semesters of the experimental courses, 70.3% of the students were over the 70% achievement level, and among them 48.4%passed even the 80% level. T h u s , finally a l m o s t h a l f o f the participating students p e r f o r m e d at t h i s v e r y h i g h l e v e l .

T h e results o f the entire e x p e r i m e n t a l i n s t r u c t i o n can be also s u m m a r i z e d o n a chart. T h e aggregated results o f 3 4 4 l e a r n i n g units that w e r e d o c u m e n t e d d u r i n g the five years are dis­

p l a y e d i n F i g u r e 4 . T h e s e aggregations i n v o l v e a l l e x p e r i m e n t a l semesters, t h e test data f o r

e v e r y l e a r n i n g u n i t s , i n c l u d i n g the results o f those semesters, w h e r e t h e principles o f the m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g strategies w e r e n o t f o l l o w e d precisely.

• P o s t - t e s t i F i r s t r e p e a t e d p o s t - t e s t I L a s t r e p e a t e d p o s t - t e s t

0 - 0 9 1 0 ¬ 1 9

2 0 ¬ 2 9

3 0 ¬ 3 9

4 0 ¬ 4 9

5 0 ¬ 5 9

6 0 ¬ 6 9

7 0 ¬ 7 9

8 0 ¬ 8 9

9 0 ¬ 1 0 0

Figure 4

The aggregated results of the entire project (Csapo, 1988. p. 63.)

I n t h i s f i g u r e , the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the post-test results is m o r e balanced t h e n i t w a s o n the first l e a r n i n g u n i t s o f a course (see F i g u r e . 2 . and 3.). H e r e , there is n o t a peak i n the l o w a c h i e v e m e n t range. T h i s i s due t o the fact, discussed earlier, that i n the last l e a r n i n g u n i t s a larger p r o p o r t i o n o f students passed the m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e first t i m e . H o w e v e r , a sig- n i f i c a n t i m p r o v e m e n t can b e observed after the first c o m p e n s a t i o n cycle, w h i l e t h e second c o m p e n s a t i o n cycle resulted i n m o r e m o d e s t i m p r o v e m e n t i n general. S o , based o n the ex- periences o f the project, a g o o d strategy appears t o b e t o a l l o w students t o participate i n m o r e c o m p e n s a t i o n cycles ( f o u r o r e v e n f i v e i f needed) at the b e g i n n i n g o f the course, t o set t h e rules and establish h i g h standards and less c o m p e n s a t i o n cycles (three o r e v e n j u s t one, i f i t is e n o u g h ) need b y the end o f the course.

A s t h e o v e r a l l results o f the project indicate, the m a s t e r y strategies d i d n o t w o r k w i t h a h u n d r e d percent accuracy. E v e n t h o u g h e x t r a efforts w e r e t a k e n t o „teach e v e r y t h i n g t o eve- r y o n e " , s o m e students f a i l e d and dropped out. H o w e v e r , i f the v e r y p o o r i n i t i a l k n o w l e d g e o f students are also considered and the final results are c o m p a r e d t o the e f f i c i e n c y o f the t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e differences are i m p r e s s i v e a n y w a y .

Factors influencing the success of mastery strategies

I f characterizing t h e semesters b y several quantitative features (variables) and consider­

i n g t h e 73 semesters as the elements o f a statistical sample, further advanced analyses can be carried out. I n a m u l t i p l e regression analysis the variables w e r e as f o l l o w s :

1) T h e p r o p o r t i o n o f students w h o reached at least the 7 0 % a c h i e v e m e n t l e v e l o n the last r e p e t i t i o n o f testing. T h i s variable characterizes the effectiveness o f t h e strategies and is t h e dependent v a r i a b l e i n the m u l t i p l e regression.

2 ) T h e year i n w h i c h the e x p e r i m e n t t o o k place. I t m a y be p r e s u m e d that as experience accumulates year after y e a r d u r i n g the p e r i o d o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l process, t h e results i m p r o v e .

3 ) T h e n u m b e r o f l e a r n i n g u n i t s i n a semester. T h e bigger the n u m b e r , the shorter the l e n g t h o f the u n i t s . I t m a y be p r e s u m e d that shorter l e a r n i n g u n i t s p r e v e n t the a c c u m u ­ l a t i o n o f p r o b l e m s and m o r e frequent c o m p e n s a t i o n is m o r e efficient.

4 ) T h e n u m b e r o f possible repetitions o f testing.

5 ) T h e m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n i n the strategy. I n the e x p e r i m e n t a l courses 5 0 % , 6 0 % , 6 7 % , 70%), 8 0 % w e r e used as t h e passing level. A h i g h e r c r i t e r i o n is expected t o result i n h i g h e r f i n a l k n o w l e d g e .

6 ) R e w a r d s o f f e r e d f o r t h e h i g h achievers o f faster learners.

7 ) U s e o f sanctions against t h e students w h o d i d n o t reach t h e m a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n . 8) T h e n u m b e r o f students i n the group.

9 ) T h e v o l u m e o f t h e tests used i n t h e semester.

10) T h e results o f t h e c o m p e n s a t o r y a c t i v i t y (difference b e t w e e n the results after a n d be­

fore t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f testing).

I n t h i s case, t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f students w h o f i n a l l y reached the 7 0 % a c h i e v e m e n t l e v e l w a s the v a r i a b l e t h a t i s used t o characterize the efficiency o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n o f the course., H o w t h e other variables i n f l u e n c e t h i s variable i s e x a m i n e d . T h e results o f t h e m u l t i p l e re­

gression are s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 2 .

A l l variables w e r e entered i n one single step. W h e n r (the c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the inde­

pendent v a r i a b l e a n d the dependent v a r i a b l e ) i s m u l t i p l i e d w i t h p (the regression c o e f f i ­ cient), t h e r P gives t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f dependent variable e x p l a i n e d b y t h e respective inde­

pendent variable.

A s the data i n the T a b l e s h o w , the characteristics w h i c h p l a y significant roles i n the ef­

fectiveness o f the strategies are as f o l l o w s i n the order o f the i m p o r t a n c e (the p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e e x p l a i n e d variance i n percent i n the parentheses).

1) T h e c o m p e n s a t o r y a c t i v i t y ( 3 1 . 5 3 % ) , plays the m o s t i m p o r t a n t roles. O b v i o u s l y , this is t h e heart o f the m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g strategies, t h i s is, the r a m i d a t i o n added t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n that m a k e s these m e t h o d s effective.

2 ) T h e advantages g i v e n t o t h e fast learners ( 1 0 . 5 9 % ) , are also i m p o r t a n t . A s i t is w e l l k n o w n f r o m the p s y c h o l o g y o f l e a r n i n g , i m m e d i a t e rewards m a i n t a i n m o t i v a t i o n and p u n ­ i s h m e n t s are less effective.

3 ) T h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f experience i n the m e t h o d s o f m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g ( 5 . 3 8 % ) had also significant c o n t r i b u t i o n . T h i s is understandable: b y t h e later e x p e r i m e n t a l years n o t o n l y the

teachers gained s o m e practice, but a n e w culture o f i n s t r u c t i o n w a s also established a n d better a n d better accepted b o t h b y the students and b y the w h o l e faculty.

Table 2. The impact of characteristics of experimental instruction on the results of semes- ters

D e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e : P r o p o r t i o n o f s t u d e n t s r e a c h i n g 7 0 %

I n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s r ß r ß t s i g n .

E x p e r i m e n t a l y e a r s 0 . 2 3 2 0 . 2 3 2 1 0 . 0 5 3 8 2 . 7 4 0 . 0 1

N u m b e r o f u n i t s 0 . 1 8 9 0 . 2 8 0 9 0 . 0 5 3 1 2 . 5 2 0 . 0 5

N u m b e r o f r e p e t i t i o n s o f p o s t - t e s t s 0 . 1 3 1 0 . 0 7 4 4 0 . 0 0 9 7 0 . 9 5 -

M a s t e r y c r i t e r i o n 0 . 1 0 6 0 . 1 5 9 7 0 . 0 1 6 9 2 . 0 0 -

R e w a r d s f o r f a s t l e a r n e r s 0 . 4 4 9 0 . 2 3 5 8 0 . 1 0 5 9 2 . 3 2 0 . 0 5

S a n c t i o n s f o r s l o w l e a r n e r s 0 . 3 7 4 0 . 1 0 3 5 0 . 0 3 8 7 0 . 9 4 -

N u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s 0 . 0 9 7 0 . 2 3 0 9 0 . 0 2 2 4 2 . 0 1 0 . 0 5

V o l u m e o f t e s t s 0 . 4 0 1 0 . 0 9 8 2 0 . 0 3 9 4 1 . 0 3 -

C o m p e n s a t i o n 0 . 6 3 6 0 . 4 9 5 7 0 . 3 1 5 3 5 . 5 2 0 . 0 0 1

R a t e o f v a r i a n c e e x p l a i n e d : 6 5 . 5 %

4 ) T h e n u m b e r o f l e a r n i n g u n i t s i n the semester ( 5 . 3 1 % ) h a d a significant r o l e t o o . H o w - ever, m o r e ( a n d s o shorter) l e a r n i n g u n i t s require m o r e tests and other m a t e r i a l s f o r the c o m p e n s a t i o n . S o , d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t s o m e courses e v o l v e d i n a w a y , that a n u m b e r o f n e w test i t e m s and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s w e r e prepared and the courses w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o m o r e and m o r e u n i t s .

5 ) T h e n u m b e r o f students i n the group ( 2 . 2 4 % ) has s m a l l , but significant c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the effectiveness o f m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g . O b v i o u s l y , i f the n u m b e r o f students i n t h e e x p e r i - m e n t a l groups v a r i e d b e t w e e n 2 0 and 110, the a t t e n t i o n that a student i n d i v i d u a l l y c o u l d re- ceive, also v a r i e d .

T h u s , i n t h i s m o d e l a t o t a l o f 6 5 % percent o f the source o f variance o f the success rate can b e i d e n t i f i e d . T h i s offers e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n f o r f i n d i n g the o p t i m a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and i m p r o v e m e n t s o f these strategies.

Students' attitudes

T h e m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g strategies require m o r e w o r k n o t o n l y f r o m the teachers, but m o r e systematic a n d d i s c i p l i n e d l e a r n i n g f r o m t h e students as w e l l . Students' acceptance a n d p o s i t i v e attitude w e r e crucial i n the successful i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f these strategies. T o assess

students' attitudes, a s u r v e y w a s administered i n the last e x p e r i m e n t a l year. T h i s question- n a i r e c o v e r i n g e v e r y r e l e v a n t aspect o f the project w a s administered t o t h e participating stu- dents.

M o s t o f t h e students h a d quite negative o p i n i o n about the efficiency o f the t r a d i t i o n a l w a y s o f the i n s t r u c t i o n . A l t o g e t h e r 8 9 . 8 % o f t h e m answered that t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n needed i m p r o v e m e n t .

I n T a b l e 3 , students' o p i n i o n s about the m a i n principles o f the m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g strate- gies t h e y experienced are s u m m a r i z e d . T h e y w e r e asked i f t h e y f o u n d t h e particular p r i n c i - ple w a s a proper one t o reflect t h e i r needs i n i m p r o v i n g the i n s t r u c t i o n ( y e s / n o ) and i f the p r i n c i p l e w a s p r o p e r l y i m p l e m e n t e d i n t h e i r o w n i n s t r u c t i o n ( y e s / n o ) . T h e T a b l e s h o w s the percentage o f students a n s w e r i n g „yes" f o r the actual question.

Table 3. Students' opinion about the main principles of mastery learning and their imple- mentation in the experiment

Principle Is it a proper W a s it properly

Principle principle? implemented?

Diagnosing and compensating prerequisite knowledge 89.2 77.8

Using test for reliable assessment o f knowledge 51.3 71.5

Compensating students' knowledge 71.5 87.3

Setting high standards 82.9 58.2

Rewarding fast learners 51.3 41.4

C o n s i s t e n t l y w i t h c o g n i t i v e - p s y c h o l o g i c a l considerations, students f o u n d the r o l e o f pre- requisite k n o w l e d g e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t . M a n y o f t h e m considered setting h i g h standards also a g o o d p r i n c i p l e , b u t less students t h o u g h t that this p r i n c i p l e w a s r e a l i z e d i n t h e i r o w n i n s t r u c t i o n . A s the regression analysis s h o w e d c o m p e n s a t i o n as the m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i - b u t i o n t o t h e g o o d results, so b e l i e v e d students as w e l l . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r answers, c o m - pensation w a s the best i m p l e m e n t e d element o f e x p e r i m e n t a l i n s t r u c t i o n .

A s f o r t h e other questions, students evaluated t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n s t r u c t i o n p o s i t i v e l y . T h e y w e r e also asked t o estimate the increase o f t h e k n o w l e d g e that t h e y mastered due t o t h e m e t h o d s used i n the e x p e r i m e n t . T h e average o f t h e i r e s t i m a t i o n w a s 3 8 % .

On the question that, as an overall judgment, asked if they recommended the broader application of the methods used in the experiment, 91.1% of them suggested that the mas- tery learning strategies should be introduced into the regular system of instruction in higher education.

Teachers' attitudes

N o systematic assessments o f teachers' attitudes w e r e carried o u t d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n - t a l p e r i o d . H o w e v e r , the documents o f the e x p e r i m e n t indicates that m o s t o f t h e participat-

i n g teachers b e c o m e c o m m i t t e d proponents o f the m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g strategies. N o n e o f the teachers w e r e educational researchers b y t r a i n i n g and before this project t h e y d i d n o t par- ticipate i n a n y s i m i l a r experiments. A t the b e g i n n i n g t h e y w e r e rather skeptical, a n d i t w a s t h e i r o w n success that g r a d u a l l y changed t h e i r o p i n i o n . A t the b e g i n n i n g , educational ex- p e r i m e n t a t i o n w a s n o t t h e i r a i m , but t h e y published t h e i r result i n 18 papers a n d b o o k chapters, a n d finally f o u r doctoral dissertations i n education g r e w o u t o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k .

D u r i n g the five academic years o f the study e l e v e n v o l u m e s o f t e x t b o o k s w e r e p u b l i s h e d that w e r e designed f o r the use o f the m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g strategies. T h e teachers w h o t o o k part i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t b e c o m e professional test developers. T h e y learned h o w t o w r i t e test items and h o w t o r u n test analysis programs. T h e y produced altogether 1546 pages o f tests f o r the pre- a n d post-testing sessions. S e v e r a l other i n s t r u c t i o n a l materials w e r e also prepared m o s t l y f o r the c o m p e n s a t i o n sessions (e.g. c o m p u t e r programs, ca. 1600 pages o f specific exercises, o v e r 2 5 0 slides, m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 sample d r a w i n g s , several m o d e l s a n d demonstra- t i o n m a t e r i a l s ) .

Costs and benefits of mastery learning

T h e analysis o f the financial b a c k g r o u n d o f the m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g w a s n o t the a h n o f the e x p e r i m e n t . T h e t o t a l expenditure o f the project w a s k n o w n , a n d a quite precise e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e m i n i m a l a d d i t i o n a l g a i n i n students' k n o w l e d g e c o u l d also b e g i v e n . H o w e v e r , i t w a s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o estimate r e l i a b l y h o w m u c h the r e a l cost o f the t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n w a s .

T a k i n g these d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t o account, and u s i n g the highest costs and the l o w e s t gains as a basis o f t h e e s t i m a t i o n , s o m e s i m p l e calculations w e r e carried o u t a n y w a y . T h e result o f a draft cost-effectiveness e s t i m a t i o n s h o w e d that the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the m a s t e r y strategies i n t o the m o s t i m p o r t a n t disciplines r e q u i r e d n o m o r e t h a n a 2 % increase o f the t o t a l costs o f t h e t r a i n i n g , a n d resulted i n at least a 1 0 % increase i n the k n o w l e d g e o f t h e students.

Epilogue

T h e e x p e r i m e n t presented here w a s j u s t one o f the m a n y i n n o v a t i o n s i n t h e H u n g a r i a n h i g h e r education. H o w e v e r at that t i m e i n its f o r m and d i m e n s i o n s , i t w a s quite u n i q u e . I t i n t r o d u c e d m e t h o d s already p r o v e n successful i n s o m e w e s t e r n countries. I n r e q u i r e d n o t m i n o r changes, b u t a n e n t i r e l y different v i e w o f teaching i n h i g h e r education. I t a i m e d t o change the entire culture o f i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , the success o f the m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g w a s rather surprising.

A f t e r f i n i s h i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l phase, the m e t h o d s used t h e n s t i l l s u r v i v e d at least sev- e r a l years. T h e r e f o r m m o v e m e n t s i n the participating i n s t i t u t i o n s gained a n i m p e t u s that also lasted f o r years. T h e materials prepared at that t i m e are still i n use. T h e teachers also c o n t i n u e t o apply t h e m e t h o d s and techniques that t h e y learned t h e n . F o l l o w i n g the g o o d examples, several other teachers began t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h the m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g o n then- o w n . H o w e v e r , that strong i n s t i t u t i o n a l support n e v e r appeared again. Since n o systematic

f o l l o w u p t o o k place, i t w o u l d b e h a r d t o t e l l precisely the present status o f the mastery l e a r n i n g methods.

L o o k i n g back o n e x p e r i m e n t a l years f r o m a decade distance, one m a y still w o n d e r w h a t is needed f o r the success o f a m a j o r i n n o v a t i o n i n h i g h e r education. T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i ­ t i o n s seem necessary:

1) A critical, crisis-like situation, w h e n the system is close t o collapsing and there i s l i t ­ tle choice other t h a n changing s o m e t h i n g .

2 ) A deep awareness o f the p r o b l e m s and a desperate search f o r the s o l u t i o n . 3 ) S t r o n g i n s t i t u t i o n a l support and expectations concerning q u a l i t y teaching.

4 ) E x t r a resources allocated f o r the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the n e w m e t h o d s .

5 ) P r o v i d i n g m o t i v a t i o n f o r the participating teachers b o t h i n m o r a l a n d materialistic t e r m s as w e l l .

6 ) O n e l o n e l y r e f o r m e r can do little. A „critical mass", a group o f colleagues supporting each other is needed t o m a k e a real break-through.

A n e w w a v e o f r e f o r m s began i n 1989. Since than, u n i v e r s i t y faculties h a v e been learn­

i n g n e w concepts concerning t h e i r w o r k , l i k e a c c o u n t a b i l i t y " , a c c r e d i t a t i o n " , „quality c o n t r o l " „quality assessment", and „quality assurance". E c o n o m i c realities forced higher education t o take several measures t o i m p r o v e efficiency. I n the past seven years a great deal o f changes t o o k place and there are m o r e t o c o m e . A renaissance o f m a s t e r y l e a r n i n g w o u l d f i t w e l l i n t o this series o f changes.

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