• Nem Talált Eredményt

Spatial- and Settlement Management Electronic Textbook version 3.0

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2022

Ossza meg "Spatial- and Settlement Management Electronic Textbook version 3.0"

Copied!
170
0
0

Teljes szövegt

(1)

Spatial- and Settlement Management

Electronic Textbook version 3.0

(2)

Spatial- and Settlement Management Electronic Textbook version

3.0

(3)

Table of Contents

1. Spatial- and Settlement Management Electronic Textbook version 3.0 ... 1

1. Preface ... 1

1.1. 1. Introduction ... 1

1.2. 2. Main contents ... 2

1.3. 3. Objectives and requirements ... 2

2. 1. Tasks and activities of settlement and spatial management ... 2

2.1. 1. Objectives ... 2

2.2. 2. Contents ... 2

2.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 3

2.3.1. The definition and types of management ... 3

2.3.2. The stages of spatial and settlement management ... 6

2.3.3. The definition of spatial and settlement management ... 10

2.4. 4. Summary ... 13

2.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 13

2.6. 6. Test questions ... 13

3. 2. Municipal models ... 14

3.1. 1. Objective ... 14

3.2. 2. Contents ... 14

3.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 15

3.3.1. The main features of Europe‟s historical regions ... 15

3.3.2. A short introduction to the self-government types existing in the European systems ... 16

3.3.3. The Mediterranean model ... 17

3.3.4. The Scandinavian model ... 20

3.3.5. The German model ... 23

3.3.6. The Anglo-Saxon System ... 24

3.4. 4. Summary ... 27

3.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 27

3.6. 6. Test questions ... 27

4. 3. Models of management: differences between strategic and operative management ... 28

4.1. 1. Objectives ... 28

4.2. 2. Contents ... 28

4.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 28

4.3.1. On administration models in general ... 28

4.3.2. Management of the magisterial activities ... 32

4.3.3. The internal administration ... 33

4.3.4. Principles of the compound system of interactions ... 33

4.3.5. Strategic and operational management ... 34

4.4. 4. Summary ... 38

4.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 38

4.6. 6. Test questions ... 39

5. 4. Characteristics of technocratic a bureaucratic management ... 39

5.1. 1. Objectives ... 39

5.2. 2. Contents ... 40

5.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 40

5.3.1. The roots and main features of the technocratic and bureaucratic management 40 5.3.2. Features for the corporative and democratic models ... 41

5.3.3. Management in accordance with the Christianity ... 45

5.4. 4. Summary ... 50

5.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 50

5.6. 6. Test question ... 50

6. 5. The new public management and the private sector ... 51

6.1. 1. Objectives ... 51

6.2. 2. Contents ... 52

6.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 52

(4)

6.3.1. The decentralised management of public duties ... 52

6.3.2. Traditions and changes in public management: techniques from some European countries ... 53

6.3.3. Public management in Europe ... 57

6.4. 4. Summary ... 62

6.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 62

6.6. 6. Test questions ... 62

7. 6. Public administration, public law relationships, public servants and service ... 63

7.1. 1. Objectives ... 63

7.2. 2. Contents ... 63

7.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 63

7.3.1. The relevance of human resources in organizations ... 63

7.3.2. Some practical aspects ... 65

7.3.3. Personnel management ... 67

7.4. 4. Summary ... 74

7.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 75

7.6. 6. Test questions ... 75

8. 7. Urban management and the system of factors of the functions of town municipalities, the decentralized management of public functions, co-operative city management? ... 76

8.1. 1. Objectives ... 77

8.2. 2. Contents ... 77

8.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 77

8.3.1. Urban management ... 77

8.3.2. Co-operative urban management ... 81

8.3.3. Integrated urban development in the EU ... 83

8.3.4. Co-operative urban management in Hungary ... 86

8.4. 4. Summary ... 89

8.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 89

8.6. 6. Test questions ... 90

9. 8. The management of rural settlements and municipalities ... 91

9.1. 1. Objectives ... 91

9.2. 2. Contents ... 91

9.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 91

9.3.1. Definition of rural and the village ... 91

9.3.2. Rural functions ... 95

9.3.3. Rural development and management – some success stories ... 98

9.4. 4. Summary ... 102

9.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 102

9.6. 6. Test questions ... 103

10. 9. The special tasks of micro-regional management ... 104

10.1. 1. Objectives ... 104

10.2. 2. Contents ... 104

10.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 104

10.3.1. The micro-regional level in Hungary ... 104

10.3.2. The function of micro-regions and key-members ... 108

10.3.3. Practical experiences ... 110

10.4. 4. Summary ... 116

10.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 116

10.6. 6. Test questions ... 116

11. 10. Tourism-destination management – a specific domain ... 117

11.1. 1. Objective ... 117

11.2. 2. Contents ... 117

11.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 118

11.3.1. The main definitions of the destination management ... 118

11.3.2. The basics of TDM system ... 121

11.3.3. The levels and steps of the establishment of the TDM system ... 122

11.4. 4. Summary ... 127

11.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 127

11.6. 6. Test questions ... 127

12. 11. The management of value-added chains and local developments ... 128

(5)

12.1. 1. Objectives ... 128

12.2. 2. Contents ... 128

12.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 128

12.3.1. Regional value-added partnership (RVP) ... 128

12.3.2. Opportunities and threats in an RVP ... 129

12.3.3. Development phases of RVPs ... 131

12.3.4. Hungarian experiences from the RUBIRES programme ... 138

12.4. 4. Summary ... 139

12.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 140

12.6. 6. Test questions ... 140

13. 12. The management of LEADER action groups ... 141

13.1. 1. Objectives ... 141

13.2. 2. Contents ... 141

13.3. 3. The phrasing of contents ... 141

13.3.1. LEADER: a new rural development approach ... 141

13.3.2. The LEADER approach in Hungary from the experimental programme (2000- 2005) to the new LEADER (2007-2013) ... 143

13.3.3. Key actors of LEADER ... 149

13.3.4. Experiences from the Hungarian LEADER programme ... 151

13.4. 4. Summary ... 155

13.5. 5. Self monitoring questions ... 155

13.6. 6. Test questions ... 155

14. Literature ... 156

14.1. Used websites ... 159

14.2. Legal documents and strategic programmes ... 161

15. Examination practice ... 161

16. Final Exam ... 162

16.1. „A” variant ... 162

16.2. „B” variant ... 163

(6)
(7)

Chapter 1. Spatial- and Settlement Management Electronic Textbook version 3.0

This course is realized as a part of the TÁMOP-4.1.2.A/1-11/1-2011-0038 project.

1. Preface

1.1. 1. Introduction

The broad variety of the profession means a great challenge even for the professionals of regional and settlement development. Understanding the tasks of regional and settlement development only in a narrower sense we may speak about a manifold and complex definition, theory and a broad spectra of practical activities (planning, project management, fundraising, community development, lobbying, monitoring etc.) as well.

When we have founded the academic specialization of regional manager MSc we wanted to create a type of geographer 2.0 based on German experiences. That‟s why the title „manager” appearing in the name on the one hand means the adaptation of the German example, and on the other hand it indicates the development of a professional competence can tackle with the complex set of problems occurring.

Regional and Settlement Management is a key subject of the same name profession of the MSc training going on at the Department of Geography, EKC. As of this sort our students learn it through a theoretical and a practical course as well. Recent work aims to help students‟ in learning beyond oral lectures. The course and recent work also relies on the knowledge of the BSc subjects named „Municipal Studies” and „The Public Administration of Hungary”.

The author is in a difficult situation as firstly he has to follow out a twofold aim, namely the adaptation of an alluring external example and the renewal of the education of geographers in Hungary at once inside the framework of this hybrid subject. Secondly the situation has become even more complex as the Hungarian systems of municipalities and public administration lives to see the most dramatic changes of the last 22 years, including the radical transformation of the institutional system of regional and local development.

Actually who can become a settlement or spatial manager, but the question can be asked, who can benefit from these ideas in the daily routine? The role of a settlement manager can be filled either by a major or a notary,

(8)

vice-notary maybe by a head of office. The function of a spatial manager can be fulfilled by the leaders of the county municipality, district office leaders, or the head of the county government office etc.

1.2. 2. Main contents

1. Tasks and activities of settlement and spatial management 2. Municipal models

3. Models of management: differences between strategic and operative management 4. Characteristics of technocratic a bureaucratic management

5. The new public management and the private sector

6. Public administration, public law relationships, public servants and service

7. Urban management and the system of factors of the functions of town municipalities, the decentralized management of public functions, co-operative city management?

8. The management of rural settlements and municipalities 9. The special tasks of micro-regional management 10. Tourism destination management – a special field

11. The management of value-added chains and local developments 12. The management of LEADER action groups

1.3. 3. Objectives and requirements

After the completion of the course students will be able to comprehend the definitional frames of regional and municipality management. They are going to get acquainted with the principal background and the practical manifestations of them as well. After the survey of theoretical questions concerning municipalities and public administration they‟ll get familiar with special problems of certain regional and municipality management issues. Among them we may find problems of city and village development and the specific issues concerning micro regions. They are going to acquire the bases of the guidance and management of some particular, but for geographers relevant forms (TDM, value added chains and LEADER local action groups of rural development) too.

2. 1. Tasks and activities of settlement and spatial management

2.1. 1. Objectives

With acquiring the lesson students will be able to understand the special characteristics of management activities, respectively its types. With the cognition of the specialities of spatial and settlement management and the learning of some scientific management interpretations they are going to master those frameworks what determine the management activities. Explanations concerning to the birth of regional level additionally the organizational and functional elements connected to the functions of municipalities will be reviewed.

2.2. 2. Contents

The definition and types of management

The stages of spatial and settlement management The definition of spatial and settlement management

(9)

2.3. 3. The phrasing of contents

2.3.1. The definition and types of management

Generally we see management as a form of activities done by one or more persons in order to harmonize or co- ordinate the work of an organization. According to another phrasing, management means the planning, organization, control and marketing of a process. (László, M. N.d.)

Harold Koontz differentiates many versions of the interpretation of management in his concluding article.

According to him (Koontz, H. 1980):

• The empirical approach states the conception of management is case-sensitive and depending on what leads to success or failure

• The interpersonal behaviour approach says things become active through people, in the centre of management is the explanation of relations

• The group behaviour approach puts the emphasis on the behaviour of group members and built on the experiences of sociology, anthropology and social psychology

• The cooperative social system approach (organizational theory) mixes the elements of the two former ones into one system (organization), co-operation is the most important objective

• The socio-technical system approach adds a further technical system dimension to the former ones, according to these methods and mechanisms have a great impact on society, while the role of the manager is to make harmony between the social and the technical dimension

• The decision theory approach apostolates that management can be marked by the way of decision-making, that is why a systematic approach to this process is a must

• The systems approach features management as something similar to biological systems, like the sum of coherent sub-systems, inputs and outputs, it is the most complex approach integrating the others

• The management science approach supposes that problems may be tackled in a mathematical model which contains the basic connection forms in order to optimize the objective

• The situational approach says management actions are dependent upon the situation, we must take into consideration the effect of them on the behavioural patterns of individuals and the whole organization as well

• The managerial roles approach originates from the research of Mintzberg aiming to investigate the roles filled by the manager

• The operational approach is trying to mix all former ones and so produces one unique understanding of management which can demonstrate the degree of complexity needed by the manager

Inside management different functions can be distinguished. One of the most important is planning, which means the definition of the organizational aims and of the steps needed to reach them, it is a conscious adaptation to environmental changes and so a minimizing of risks (Figure 1).

(10)

Figure 1 Existing sub-systems and active forces in organizational systems (Own edition after Gáspár, M. 1995)

Figure2 The 7S model of McKinsey about the structure of management system (Source: Gáspár, M. 1995) The 7S model of McKinsey summarizes the dimensions should be touched by management activities in a given organization. (Figure 2) In any organization do exist or revive different kind of forces and there are more or less formalized units whose operations are crucial for the manager.

(11)

The stress of individual dimensions can be different in the life of certain organizations; according to it Mintzberg distinguishes seven kind of organizational structures. (Table 1)

Table 1 Organizational structure types written by Mintzberg (Source: Gáspár, M. 1995)

Source: Own edition after Gáspár, M. 1995

It is crucial for a manager to be aware of which type his organization fits in best according to the inner circumstances.

The temporality of management activities can‟t be overstressed. Regulation plays an exceptional role in it as it is able to install feedback points into the processes of the organization. In case of permanently repeating activities planning, doing, checking and acting are recurring in continuous cycles, we call it PDCA cycles. (Figure 3)

For the realization of plans organization is inevitable, which helps to secure resources needed for functioning. It is supplemented on the one hand by the guidance which adjusts the input side of the organizational units, and on the other hand by the control which covers the direct or indirect (communication) command of human resources.

Especially in case of organizations acting through democratic legitimacy, organizational policy must be arranged when decisions are to be passed by the stakeholders.

According to the timeframe of objectives we can distinguish different types of managements:

• strategic management

• tactic management

• operative management

(12)

Figure 3 The PDCA model (Source: hci.co.au Downloaded 10 February 2013)

For the production of different goods the co-operation of value added chains formed by different economic units is needed. The most important sub-systems of such a chain are as follows:

• Primary activities, sub-systems directly connected to the market

• Marketing management to get connection with market

• Innovation management in order to gain competitive advantage

• Production and service management

• Quality management

• Logistics

• Human resource management

• Information management

• Financial management

2.3.2. The stages of spatial and settlement management

The subject of management can be all short of phenomena, we may speak about business, project and financial etc. management. Especially for geographers management of different spatial units arises as a problem to be answered. While settlements are relatively well-defined, the determination of areas or regions is more indistinct.

(Bujdosó, Z. 2008)

(13)

Figure 4 The system of districts in Hungary (Source: www.jarasok.com Accessed: 10 December 2012)

Changes occurring in the Hungarian national spatial system have brought a new situation in the scope of duties of spatial management. (Figure 4 and 5)

Figure 5 The statistic-planning micro regions in Hungary (Source: www.ksh.hu Accessed: 10 December 2012)

Many authors has tried to define the concept of settlements has been tried by many authors. Our opinion is that from them the so-called „tetrahedron model” formulated by József Tóth is adequate to serve as a base for the refinement of the subject of settlement management. According to this author a settlement is a co-operative system based on the interaction of natural, social, economic and infrastructural spheres. The dynamism being in

(14)

the definition must be highlighted as all sides of the tetrahedron adjacent the others, so a change in one dimension affects every other side. During the process of settlement management attention has to be paid on it as well. (Tóth, J. 2002)

In the functions of municipalities three kind can be differentiated, such as basic, service functions additionally management tasks directing-organizing the former ones. (Figure 6)

Municipal systems of the member states of the European Union are extremely multicoloured, except the regions, micro and macro areas of the 27 member states being at different autonomy degree. The legislation of the EU does not possess full competency or decisive legitimacy in these topics, so the role of the national level is still dominant. The Community legislative contains mainly protocols and non-binding legal elements. The veteran European Charter of Local Government accepted in 15 October 1985 or the European Charter of Regional Government are of this sort. (Figure 7)

Accordingly there exists a principled framework that at least in Europe tries to standardize the frames of management of municipalities. However, management activities are realized over it in the everyday practice. As Cameron Harcourt stated in his analysis of Vancouver, cities are the results of those everyday choices which are taken by us as leaders, activists or citizens. (Harcourt, C. 2007)

Figure 6 The so-called cube model of municipal activities (Source: Gáspár, M. 1995)

(15)

Figure 7 Countries signing the European Charter of Local Government (Source: upload.wikimedia.org)

The region is a broadly used key phrase applied by many actors consequently a broad set of meaning has been connected with it. The European territorial actors have conceived their special region interpretation. In a county- conference held in Hungary in 1998 Hans De Belder, the representative of the Assembly of European Regions has defined the region as follows:

„a democratically elected political authority that is situated directly under the government and more-or-less autonomous economically and financially. Very often they can possess their own culture, history, identity etc.”(De Belder, H. 1998)

Social geography is not uniform in the definition of regions. Our opinion is that the interpretation of regions of Anssi Paasi is a properly complex definition as it states that regions are culturally and socially created units, historical creatures, formations that change in time. They are born by social activities and communication, but more than the pure image of momentarily perceived reality.(Paasi A. 1991)

Paasi (1986) differentiates the REGION from PLACE. The latter is related to the experiences, everyday life and personal meanings of individuals. The former is paralleled with society and collective. (Figure 8) „REGION” is the result of institutionalized practices and collective meanings. Naturally individuals and society are in constant interaction consequently the system is reproduced and transformed.

(16)

Figure 8 The presence of individual and society in human activities (Paasi, A. 2000)

2.3.3. The definition of spatial and settlement management

The phrasing of settlement management – similarly to the former ideas – is not an effortless duty. According to some authors settlement management is in fact not the agency of individual actions, but that of action-networks.

Anyway relationships among different organizations are important. In the complex and inordinate, un-sutured system of inter-organizational networks authorities are only one part of input, in no case represent the whole system. (Czarniawska, B.2002)

Spatial and regional management is an even more complex definition than settlement management. It concerns not only the co-operation of individual settlements, but of many more actors (enterprises, NGOs, national and regional authorities and organizations etc.) that can‟t be tied to one particular settlement.

Besides there is another explanation of regional management, namely the comprehensive control of organizational units of global companies acting in different geographical areas. (Ambos, B. – Schlegelmilch, B.

B. 2010)

The person of settlement and regional manager is substantial despite – as we stated above – management is about the activities of supra-individual networks. Still in the spider web spiders have a crucial role holding the end of pile in his hands and detects all movements of sub-systems.

However the settlement and regional manager is the man nestled between politicians and the technical- executors. Ultimately his activities can be characterized not so by innovation as the endeavour towards the accuracy of reproduction and execution. (Czarniawska, B. 2002)

We may give a complex answer to the question whether what activities do managers have to care about. The performance of an organization, like settlement and areas can be divided into two parts: we may distinguish professional and constitutional issues. While the former ones pertain to relations originated in connection with the main activities of the organization, to the latter ones the next can be instanced:

Conceiving among the frameworks of the traditional thinking, management activities to a great extent are about information processing with the next parts:

• analysis: the collection of information about the internal-external environment of the organization

(17)

• communication: regularly with stakeholders (maintainers, users, inferior staff members)

• planning and henceforth the improvement of the efficacy of decision-making

• implementation: a more effective execution (the improvement of info-systems, the training of human resources etc.)

• utilization: with the implementation resources needed for the work of the organization are born

• follow-up

The manager in other worlds can be named a problem-solver what function may be depicted by a standard formula:

• Raising and determining of problems

• The analysis of the external and internal environment

• The establishment of the framework priorities – the designation of basic values, organizational mission

• Problem analysis (SWOT)

• Search for and evaluation of solutions

• the examination of feasibility

• cost-benefit analysis

• To draft the detailed map of solution

• The detailed description of activities

Expressing a bit in a post-modern way, one main role of a manager is sense-production what can be affected by functionality and the force of authority as well. Another key function is to rule difficulties or the struggle with daily problems including planning and the vision of implementation as well. As a manager it is hard to find peace, it is a must to construct and reconstruct permanently in a way to focus on a further and further piece of reality. Fastening belongs to it as well, thus new inspirations and ideas must be tested by possible actors in order to secure their support.

At last but not least the job of a manager is to peg away at beauty, since either a sound machine or a run-in inter- organizational mechanism is beautiful as well. The aim of the manager is to secure this beauty. (Czarniawska, B.

2002)

According to another approach spatial and settlement managers basically direct different energies as long as from a mere idea a tangible project emerges, as Viktor Schauberger, the great Austrian researcher stated:

„If I want to make an apple pie, there is first the idea, then the planning, translating this through visualization and then finally the physical creation of the pie. This is much more important than we realize. From the simplest task like tying your shoelace, to the complex challenge of becoming a tennis champion, the better the 'mind pictures' of how we are going to perform the required actions, the more successful will be the outcome. The force, the impulse, which is the motivator for us to create, is an unseen energetic process.” (cited by:

Bartholomew, A. 2003)

According to different sciences settlement and spatial management can be interpreted in different ways as well.

In history the stories of different settlements and areas, the examination of the relationship between leader persons and phenomena plays elemental importance. In jurisprudence the survey of legal acts and aspects determining development are of primary relevancy. In economics these units exist as the places of economic activities. It is argued by some authors that controlling a city resembles being a multinational company‟s CEO.

(Czarniawska, B. 2002)

Sociologists analyze the population of settlements and areas, their social constitution that is they are looking for internal factors behind surface processes. According to administration science management is that part of the

(18)

operation of the given organization which is responsible for the environmental adaptation skills, additionally harmonizes and makes goal oriented different functions. (Gáspár, M. 1995)

Geography as a chorological science deals on the one hand with the spatial distribution of administrative and management activities on the other hand with the geographic relations of different actors. Initiating from the theory of institutionalization by Paasi the task of a spatial or settlement manager can be specified as the second or the arranger of the institutionalization process. (Figure 10)

Figure 9 The system of agents concerning the performance of settlement municipalities (Source: Gáspár, M.

1995)

Figure 10 The draft of the institutionalization of regions (Source: Paasi, A. 2000)

(19)

Animation 1: The system of agents concerning the performance of settlement municipalities

2.4. 4. Summary

In this chapter we introduced some possible ways of the interpretation and the types of management. We indicated that in different organizations diverse sub-systems and forces can work, henceforth the tasks of managers can be standardized only to a relatively small extent. It is a crucial statement, that it is not enough to deal with the work of an organization at a glance but rather to analyse it in dynamic. Different assistant methodologies that can be summarized with PDCA cycles serve this purpose. The settlement and spatial management can occur in diverse scenes out of which in recent chapter we highlighted settlement municipalities and different spatial units (regions). The common regulation of the agency of municipalities has been started for more than 25 years, despite the national control today for the main is integer.

Different sciences try to interpret spatial and settlement management by their special point of view, for geographers the theory of the institutionalization of regions by Paasi provides a complex way of understanding.

2.5. 5. Self monitoring questions

1. What types of management can be distinguished?

2. What does PDCA model mean?

3. What are the special tasks of settlement management?

4. What is a region?

5. What steps constitute the institutionalization of regions?

6. Which countries have ratified the European Charter of Local Government?

7. When did Hungary ratify this agreement?

8. What kind of financial sources must be made for the European municipalities?

9. What is predicated by the so called cube model of municipal agency?

10. What main points constitute the system of agents concerning the performance of settlement municipalities?

2.6. 6. Test questions

Conjugate the organizational structure types written by Mintzberg to the below characteristics!

Organization type Character of the organization

1. Entrepreneurial a, A permanent conflict situation, the cohesion is depending on the efficiency of the conflict management

2. Mechanic bureaucratic b, Internal cohesion given by the organization culture, loosely formalized other internal contacts

3. Diversified c, Instable organization, strong service units, complex co-operation mechanisms

4. Professional d, A priority of the professional staff, democratic decentralization

(20)

5. Innovative e, Strong mid-level, sub-units with a high level of autonomy

6. Missionary f, A strong formal control, quality assurance and

limited decentralization

7. Political g, A tight control over the executives

Correct: 1g, 2f, 3e, 4d, 5c, 6b, 7a

Group the following arguments to different phases of the PDCA model!

1. Flowcharts 2. Conflict-solution 3. Data-sheets

4. Cause-effect diagram 5. Graphic analysis 6. Pareto-analysis

7. Small group leader skills 8. Standardization of processes Correct:

P: 1, 6, 4 D: 2, 7 C: 3, 5 A: 8

3. 2. Municipal models

3.1. 1. Objective

This chapter aims at providing an overview on the various self-government systems operating in Europe. Here, a special emphasis will be put on the historic background of the evolution of such systems as well as on specific factors determining the evolution and operation of the levels of local self-determination in Europe‟s various historical regions. A more detailed review will be given on the main features of the French, Swedish, German and English self-government systems.

3.2. 2. Contents

The main features of Europe‟s historical regions

A short introduction to the self-government types existing in the European systems The Mediterranean System

The Scandinavian System The Anglo-Saxon System

(21)

The German System

3.3. 3. The phrasing of contents

3.3.1. The main features of Europe’s historical regions

Europe – although with physical geographical borders also intended to be contrived – can be interpreted as a socio-cultural region. Through many centuries, its most important force of cohesion was represented by its Jewish-Christian religion and culture facilitating a flourishing variegation at other segments of life (economy, culture, politics, etc.). This force of cohesion was progressively replaced by the modern nation state considered as a European invention and universal institution in the Modern Age. According to the (neo)conservative philosophers, it is still this system unhinging Europe among its global competitors with its sustenance being essential for today‟s global capitalism. (SCRUTON, R. 2005)

A key question in the European type democratic systems is the relationship between the local authority and the central national level. It is the local level that can be directly influenced by citizens, has a direct impact on their lives as well as where the most direct experience of democracy is obtained. The significance of these levels is also emphasised by subsidiarity that from a tradition developed in the church had become a key element of the European integration.

According to the masterpiece by Jenő Szűcs, usually three historical regions of Europe are mentioned. They include Western Europe, the home for the notions of freedom, local small communities and the respect for the individual. Sprouts of the development of orders as well as, centuries later, the world of enlightenment, general human rights and liberalism were launched from here. At the other end of the continent, i.e. in Eastern Europe, a rather strongly centralised Bezant (later, Russian tsarist) society and state is found not giving rope to the personal rights of freedom and the autonomy of local communities. (SZŰCS, J. 1983) Between the two is found the so-called „In-Between Europe‟ with features from both other regions and joined to one of the above regions from time to time („Ferry-country‟). (Figure 11)

Central Europe as a phenomenon was temporarily ceased due to the duality existing between 1945 and 1990 with however some gaps, i.e. „non-aligned countries‟ (Finland, Yugoslavia) could not be unequivocally classified as part of either blocks remaining (Figure 12).

Self-government as a developed form of freedom was formed and relished by the collectivum thus developed in the great historical regions with various levels of intensity and forms. In the meantime, at areas affected by the western type European integration, as a result of various historical and cultural roots, several self-government systems developed. Despite this, the most relevant principles of self-government can be summarised as follows (Aimak Foundation):

1. Presence of a selected local governing body;

2. Existence of common property;

3. Legally established agreement between local authorities and citizens;

4. Regional demands fulfilled by own resources;

5. Functions fulfilled at social fields;

6. Existence of a competition-based system in fulfilling self-government employment positions;

7. Responsible finances toward the region‟s citizens;

8. Independent decision-making;

9. Protection by law.

(22)

Figure 11 Europe‟s social geographical regions (Own edition)

Figure 12 The „Iron Curtain‟ in Europe (Own edition)

3.3.2. A short introduction to the self-government types existing in the European systems

In Europe, several self-government systems evolved as a result of the given country‟s and society‟s internal development along with external impacts. Between the central and local levels, usually elected regional self- governments and national deconcentrated bodies are found. The method of the division of functions and roles between the various levels of state authority can be studied based on a research of a multi-approach system of criteria. Among them the following can be mentioned:

(23)

• effective collection,

• adequate allocation,

• accountability,

• transparency,

• public satisfaction,

• active public participation

It can be claimed that no optimal solution is available to allocate functions as it all depends on the position and traditions of the given system of self-government.

In general it can be concluded that self-governments in the developed and democratic countries enjoy major political independence however have a various extent of economic autonomy. On this basis, three different types of public financial structures can be distinguished in Europe. The so-called Scandinavian model (e.g. Sweden) is described as with expenses of the self-government exceeding 15% of the GDP, and the Mediterranean model (e.g. Spain) when remaining below 5%,. Figure 13 Self-government expenses in the share of GDP in various European countries (2000-2011) (Edited based on Eurostat data)

As seen above (Figure 13) self-government expenditures remain the lowest in some Southern European countries (Greece, Cyprus). As a matter of fact however that in the actual Mediterranean countries as France, Portugal or Spain, the value studied although still remaining below the EU27 average indicated a continuous increase during the past decade. The Nordic countries appearing at the other end of the scale (Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Norway) can be, in some cases, characterised by values around 30% or exceeding that.

A similar distribution can be observed for the share of self-government expenditures from public finances (Figure 14). It is well observable that the Northern-Southern duality can be detected in this indicator, too. In some countries where provinces have outstanding significance (e.g. Spain), this regional level is present as an

actor of finances of key importance.

Figure 14 The share of self-government expenditures from public finances in European countries (2011) (Source: Eurostat)

3.3.3. The Mediterranean model

Mediterranean model features centralization, increased state control and a limited role of small-sized self- governments. French is one of the most typical Mediterranean type self-government systems. This type is also called Napoleonic system as such features developed as a result of the administrative reforms of the former French emperor. (Figure 15)

(24)

The model‟s main feature is the included intensive state influence as well as personal and institutional control operating. Within the system, extensive systems of independent professional control bodies (national and regional court of auditors) exist.

Roles and functions to be attended are allocated to three-level of regional self-governments. In addition to them, in attending roles, the regional service associations of self-governments, the state, civil organisations and the church also fulfil important roles.

Figure 15 The regional self-government system in France

The financial background of roles by self-governments is covered from four sources:

• state subsidies,

• local taxes,

• local fees,

• credit uptake.

Approximately two third of self-government expenditures are covered by own revenues and various credits. The remaining one third is added up by state resource transfer (general, urban planning and solidarity endowments).

Local taxes are subject to various factors as property, plots, local business, etc. The assessment of local taxes is compulsory for self-governments. Tax measures are settled by the state defining minimum and maximum values. Taxes are collected by a national body or future tax incomes are advanced to the self-governments. So- called indirect taxes are also present within the system (representing important added revenue for regions and counties) as for example motor vehicle tax, electricity consumption and various dues.

As an important part of the system, in order to implement development, self-governments are allowed to assess surtaxes facilitating the realisation of investments of such type.

(25)

As a result of the frittered character of self-governments, the development of local partnerships is supported by the state by providing direct subsidies for self-government associations fulfilling surplus roles. (Figure 16 and 17)

To replace unaccounted revenues, self-governments can freely take up credits however as observed, such practice has become increasingly stricter as economic difficulties are present in the public sector as well. To supplement development sources, targeted subsidies can also be provided for specific projects by the ministries in charge.

The financial operation of self-governments is supervised by three public institutions (treasury, prefect, regional court of auditors):

• Bureau of Treasury – controlling of warrants

• Prefect – legitimacy control

• Regional Court of Auditors – post legitimacy and subserviency control.

In addition to the above, apparently publicity also has an important controlling role in the self-government systems.

Figure 16 The map showing France‟s self-governments of settlements (Source:

http://thewhereblog.blogspot.hu/2009/01/topography-of-community.html Downloaded: 10 September 2012)

(26)

Figure 17 The administrative self-government map of Italy (Source: en.wikipedia.org Downloaded: 12 December 2012)

3.3.4. The Scandinavian model

The self-government systems in the Scandinavian countries traditionally root back to the Middle Ages. In these states, a rather developed version of estate system involving the majority of society was developed. As a rare example in Europe, peasantry outlaw elsewhere could exist as an independent estate as an equal category to other estates. With the wide-spreading of reformation in these countries, the Lutheran sect became state religion thus it is no coincidence that for example the Swedish self-government system was developed in the traces of the system of dioceses (Figure 18).

(27)

Figure 18 The map showing Swedish dioceses and self-governments (Edited based on http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Dioceses_of_Church_of_Sweden.svg and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalities_of_Sweden)

This type of system includes self-governments with extensive areas with extensive system of roles and range of responsibility. Accordingly, self-governments obtain a remarkable financial-economic autonomy. As another feature is that during the 1970s centralisation was predominant as the Swedish welfare state became consummated. In the 1990s, in accordance to tendencies within the EU, the setting up of smaller units was typical. (Figure 19)

Scandinavian type systems are based on the cooperation between the state, counties and settlements. All three levels are involved in the implementation of various types of roles along with controlling, supplementing each other and functioning in partnership.

An interesting feature of the system is that the mayor‟s function would not exist in regional self-governments (however obviously would in major towns). Instead of mayors, bodies elected for four years govern in regional units or full-time employed administrators. Committees also play an important role carrying out the majority of operative activities. The most important elements of the system are budgetary and financial committees however such bodies can also be established to fulfil other specific tasks. (Figure 20)

(28)

Figure 19 Changes in the number of the local self-governments in Sweden

Figure 20 The model of a typical Swedish self-government (Edited based on the Local government in Sweden – organisation, activities and finance, 2005)

Some typical roles attended by Swedish self-governments:

• Pre-school education and primary schools

• Secondary schools

• Elderly care

(29)

• Disabled care

• Maintenance

• Libraries

• Planning and construction

• Environmental protection and health issues

• Water supply

• Sewage water collection

• Public cleansing

• Waste collection

• Ambulance and emergency

The country‟s law on self-government is a framework-type law i.e. local level has a significant discretional power representing the actual power concentrated here.

An important feature of the Scandinavian model is that on the level of self-governments, a considerable amount of money is spent on education. Usually, it represents 33% of all expenditures. In addition to this, costs related to elderly care and child care also represent outstanding items in within the budget.

The most relevant source of revenues for self-governments is represented by the income tax paid by citizens (approximately 60% of all revenues). In addition, state subsidies are also substantial and are usually devoted to functioning when local governments intend to implement developments and for that their own resources must be mobilised. To fill in such a function, several municipal corporations were established. Population has a significant and direct influence on local power, as local referenda where the most important and significant issues decided are often held. Before such decisions are made, consultations are compulsory to be carried out with various interest groups and trade unions. Another condition is that the public-private partnership (PPP) developed projects and enterprises can be adumbrated by members of the public and local civil organisations.

This is a significant achievement as the local authorities can not conceal any potential corruption cases under the pretext of protection of their business secrets.

The legal control of self-governments is carried out by national and regional bodies, which are supplemented by an internal self-control mechanism.

3.3.5. The German model

Due to the peculiarities of the German history – namely the country‟s dividedness for centuries - , many forms of local-regional self-governments have been established in the society.

Economic self-governments are represented for example by chambers of commerce and industry, chambers of agriculture fulfilling important functions in the country's socio-economic system.

Professional self-governments such as chambers of medicine, dentists, veterinary surgeons or pharmacists, also have significant traditions.

Various universities have cultural self-government not only in Germany, but traditionally also in Europe.

Social self-governments include health insurance or pension insurance, accident insurance and Labour governments.

The autonomy of regional self-governments is guaranteed by the German federal government and provinces through legislation. Such basic rights guaranteed are as follows (TILKORN, E. N.d.) :

(30)

In recent decades, reforms led to a significant reduction in the number of local governments. The German self- government model is based on a federal system of public administration and is a multi-level and hierarchical system in which the lowest level has a relatively limited role. Within the system both the municipal and district levels with different responsibilities exist. The municipal roles include communal services, local health issues, sports and culture, schools, housing construction and the maintenance of the local road network.

Self-governments are an important repository of the functioning German democratic system. Within the Federal State the direct control of self-governments is a provincial responsibility.

Local authorities have their own tax revenues, but may receive additional support from provinces. An important precondition related to their management is that self-governments may be credit granted only for investment purposes. This is subject to strict provincial supervisory approval. Different provinces usually operate strict regulatory system for self-governmental credits. In general, local savings banks and Landesbanks provide cheap loans to self-government developments. (Figure 21)

The provinces are the main bearers of power taken over in certain cases only by the federal state, however, there are also functions jointly occupied. Tax laws are for example federal laws. Across the country, three basic taxes exist as follows:

• Income tax

• Corporate income tax

• Value added tax

A major source of revenues for local governments is represented by a variety of subsidies and state-shared taxes

and local taxes (e.g. luxury tax).

Figure 21 The map of Landesbanks in Germany (Source: de.wikipedia.org Downloaded: 10. December 2012.)

3.3.6. The Anglo-Saxon System

(31)

Regarding its origin, it is interpreted as the local decentralisation of the central power‟s certain functions. Also referred to as ultra vires model meaning the self-governments could not expand beyond their direct legal authorisation. The authorities are responsible for, in the Anglo-Saxon system, fulfilling roles designated by the Parliament and the associated supplementary functions (financing, human resources etc). In this system, self- governments are responsible for organising human and infrastructural public services as well as fulfilling certain public authority (mainly police) functions. Such are, in general, legally binding set of tasks or optional functions. As a special feature, the system consists of a large number of self-governments with very limited substantial scope of authority. Above the level of settlements, the actual level of self-governments is represented by districts, towns and cities. The primary functions are fulfilled by district and towns with district rights. Cities (Unitary Authorities) also perform county and district functions.

The system roots back to the legal system of Victorian England, when local elected bodies had received an increasing number of roles that were covered by revenues coming from their own taxes collected. Since the second half of the 20th century, their functions have been gradually withdrawn - centralised – to the national government. Another blow to the traditional system was dealt by central governments at the end of the century when further functions were given over to so-called quango1 organisations. Today, opposite to the approximately 60,000 designated members of the more than 5,000 quango stand the 22,000 elected representatives of the approximately 500 traditional self-governments. (WOLLMANN, H. 2004)

In fulfilling roles - similar to the Scandinavian system -, a major role is to be played by various committees, whose compositions must reflect the political distribution of the council as a whole.

Resultant from the conservative government of 1980s, the privatization of roles and the flourishing of public procurements were witnessed. It was ended by Blair‟s Labour government by introducing the ‟Best Value‟ (BV) system, which means that each municipality must elaborate an annual plan on the system corrections to be achieved in order to improve its services. (Wollmann, H. 2004) BV and its replacement, the more predictable

‟Comprehensive Performance Assessment‟s (CPAs) represented the institutionalization of quality assurance system in the self-government system.

The local level is significantly dependent on the central legislation, as it can easily distract or select further local functions. Such systems are in place in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and most US Member States.

The contemporary UK self-government system – following the reforms of the 1990s – is particularly diverse.

Scotland and Wales witnessed the two levels of fulfilling roles (county/borough and district councils) completely disappearing and replaced by uniform authorities. It is very interesting that in some regions of England, following an extensive public debate in some areas, the uniform system was introduced whereas at other regions the former, traditional categories remained in use. A separate system was put in place in Northern Ireland, where the central government retained major functions. The special and traditional self-governmental

1Members of the quango (quasi-non-governmental) organisations are appointed by the govenrment, its expenditures are mostly covered by the central budget however deals with local and regional issues.

(32)

division of London‟s proper city (‟Corporation of London‟) is also worth mentioning. (Figure 22)

Figure 22 The statue marking the border of the City of London (Corporation of London) at the bank of the River Thames

Animation 2: Changes in the rate of the average Swedish municipality tax

(33)

3.4. 4. Summary

In this chapter, a review was given on the regional disparities of the self-government systems interpreted as a European basic value. A detailed overview was also provided on the centralised French model developed based on the Napoleonic rule of law and was spread mainly in Southern Europe. In Northern Europe, the self- government system developed on the roots of the Lutheran Church is dominated by units with large areas and high autonomy. The third major type is the German one containing, due to the federal state, a multi-level and complex system of self-governments. The English self-government system with its still working form developed, following a complex reform process during the 20th century developed at the edge of the continent, somewhat separately.

3.5. 5. Self monitoring questions

1. What are the main features of the Mediterranean self-government system?

2. What are the main features of the Scandinavian self-government system?

3. What are the main features of the Anglo-Saxonian self-government system?

4. What are the main features of the German self-government system?

5. What are the similarities between the Hungarian and the Mediterranean self-government systems?

6. What are the similarities between the Hungarian and the Scandinavan self-government systems?

7. What are the similarities between the Hungarian and the Anglo-Saxonian self-government systems?

8. What are the similarities between the Hungarian and the German self-government systems?

3.6. 6. Test questions

Group the following arguments to the different municipal models! (Mediterranean, Scandinavian, German, Anglosaxon)

1. Multi-level government-municipal system 2. A system based on the Lutheran Church Counties 3. Low interest-rate loans provided by Landesbanks 4. Small-scale municipalities with only a few functions 5. Crucial role of commissions

6. Total transparency of PPP constructions 7. Called Ultra vires model as well 8. Importance of quango organizations Mediterranean: 4

Scandinavian: 2, 5, 6 German: 1, 3 Anglosaxon:7, 8

Which one of them is NOT a principle of municipal systems?

1. The existence of an elected local governing body;

(34)

2. National defence;

3. The existence of common property;

4. Legally-based contract between local authorities and inhabitants;

5. Transparency;

6. Local demands fulfilled from own resources;

7. Functions filled in the social area;

8. The existence of a competition-based system in the fill of vacancies of the municipal system;

9. Financial affairs checked by local inhabitants;

10. Autocracy;

11. Independent decision making;

12. Legal protection.

Correct: 2, 5, 10

4. 3. Models of management: differences between strategic and operative management

4.1. 1. Objectives

In the operation of an organization - whether it is for-profit or non-profit – forms of interaction originating from hierarchical relationships (e.g. magisterial relationships), traditionally play a major role. The ‟ability to manage them‟ is an essential manager skill. Today, beyond these traditional relationships new skills and competencies essential in solving situations originating from compoundness and partnership as well as from the unpredictable changes in the external and internal conditions are gaining a more and more increasingly important role.

This lesson aims at interpreting the term administration models and the associated basic definitions and giving an introduction to the systems of interaction describing hierarchical relationships. Further, based on the compound partnership relations are reviewed. Within the hierarchical and compound administration systems, strategic and operational management approaches should be distinguished. These two scenarios will also be reviewed in this chapter.

4.2. 2. Contents

On administration models in general Management of the magisterial activities The internal administration

Principles of the compound system of interactions Strategic and operational management

4.3. 3. The phrasing of contents

4.3.1. On administration models in general

In regional and urban management, interests of the given group must be represented during a project or program between hierarchical and compound organisations. In such inter-organizational interactions administration and

(35)

management are considered to be relevant definitions. These two key terms are essential to the understanding of the relationships within the given organization also in order to establish cooperation with partner organizations.

Under the term ‟administration models‟, a variety of approaches are found in the literature of various disciplines. Taken as an example, such are interpreted in the jurisprudential literature as the regulated systems of relationships of various power structures determined in legal parlance. Furthermore, a dissertation on the potential systems of models in developing a micro-regional system can also be found (SOMLYÓDY, PFEIL E.

2003) . References regarding the establishment of solid society according to which the model of social administration must be altered can be heard (JUHÁSZ, G. 2004) . Unfortunately, due to this versatility it is impossible to deal with all aspects of administration models. Those interested can accomplish such from the literature of organizational sciences.

Interpreting the term ‟administrative models‟ from the point of view of a profession (not yet existing in Hungary) i.e. urban and regional management seems to be rather challenging. Especially when this attractive idea is intended to be filled up with concretes provided the flexi definition of ‟region‟ considered as a basis. To conceptualise this definition, the administration and management interpretation betoken by sociology is called upon for. Thus, according to the social scientists:

"Management is usually of a form of practicing power. In the sociological context, management is a power structure between two organisations where one (the managing) organization influences the other (the managed) organisation. This influence represents the emerging will of the managing one." (http://www.uni- miskolc.hu/~wwwallin/kozig/hirek/altalanos_resz/iranyitas.pdf Accessed: 23 July 2012)

In this sense, thus, two organizations with some kind of power hierarchy and between them have to be assumed.

Apparently administration/management potentials beyond the relationship between the two organizations (for example, the relationship between certain public administration bodies and the public), can not be interpreted in this definition. It is better to be supplemented by being the influence of the managing body on organisations, groups or individuals.

The administration science assumes a so-called administrative formula in which a role is provided to the subject of management (manager), the object of management (the managed person or organisation), the objective of management (ensuring the undisturbed functioning of the object) and the content of management (the system of roles fulfilled by the subject) (Figure 23).

The key of the emerging surplus in human cooperation (KALAS T. N.d.) is hidden somewhere in this formula.

The urban and regional manager is a person catalyzing the functioning of the processes.

Figure 23 The basic formula of administration (Edited based on KALAS T. N.d.)

(36)

Various administrative systems are characterized by applying different tools both in professional and in administrative matters. Accordingly, management can be implemented through legal regulation or the explanation of roles, providing information, financial support, training, etc.

Management relationship is referred by the literature for cases when an organization has management power by law over the activities of others. This can be manifested in direct regulation, disbursing norms, decision making, supervisory or controlling law as well.

From another approach, however, for any organizations, management and administrative activities can be distinguished. In general it can be claimed that the management codes of practice is less regulated compared to the magisterial one which also requires detailed legal authorisation. The manager‟s work and conditions within the organization can be associated primarily with management activity. However, magisterial activities as regulations strictly defining the possibilities of management should not be neglected.

The management power of organizations over each other can have a wide spectrum ranging from a limited power to full power of management. The former is more common in modern administrative organisational structures with the autonomy of regulated bodies are ensured by e.g. legal standards.

Various forms of management can be distinguished according to whether the managing body is authorized in organisational or professional matters. Legislation on management can be specified in details or framework-type only. In the latter case, the body managed obtains a so-called discretional power and can manage anything not prohibited by the law under narrower or broader circumstances. According to the jurisprudence, there are several types of management licences. (Figure 24)

. Figure 24 Types of management licences

(37)

Figure 25 Types of magisterial supervision

Over time, with the gradually decreasing role of state centralisation, the total management scope of duties also indicated a continuous decrease whereas the supervisory role has been re-valued. This, obviously, was accompanied by the strengthening of the autonomy of local communities in the Western European sense.

According to the jurisprudential literature, three types of supervision, i.e. magisterial, legal and technical supervision are distinguished.

The scope of magisterial supervision – also classified into several sub-types – can affect both individuals and organizations. (Figure 25)

Legal supervision serves to retaliating offences. This power is often limited to launching initiatives as e.g. the legal supervision of Hungarian self-governments since the final word (as in certain cases the dissolution of a given self-government) can be declared only by the House of Parliament. (Figure 26)

Figure 26 Possibilities for legal supervision

Professional supervision is supplied by ministries regarding the jurisdiction of self-government and private institutes. Such measures aim at unobjectionably enforcing professional aspects. (Figure 27)

(38)

Figure 27 Licenses for professional supervision

Following the above description of management and supervision, the question of practical importance on the duty of the managed individual or organisation when the direction clearly violates the law arises.

There are various principles to the practical interpretation of the above matter. One is the principle of unconditional subservience according to which the managed ones have no rights to contribute (unconditional subservience). According to the other, the legality of the directive must be examined and in case it is against the law, implementation is obliged to be refused (full responsibility). The third type provides a possibility for consideration for the managed ones (moderate subservience). Another possibility is given when the managed one requires both written edition and an approval by the superior authorities.

The fact that if by the implementation offence or felony would take place or human life or physical integrity would be directly threatened, implementation should be denied, must be taken into account at all times.

4.3.2. Management of the magisterial activities

Self-government magisterial cases are classified into a special category. The municipal council is entitled to practice the scope of authority in these cases, however this can be transferred. In such cases, the given scope of authority can be transferred to the committee, the mayor, the sub-self-governmental body or to an association with council. These institutions, however, are not allowed to further delegate their scope of authority. It should also be mentioned that such scope of authority can not be transferred either to the town clerk nor a minority self- governmental body.

Self-governmental magisterial scopes can be established on the one hand, by the House of Parliament through law-making activities and, on the other, by the council. Specifically, most social benefit issues are classified as municipal magisterial matters for which the decision must be made in accordance with the General Administrative Procedure Law, the Local Self-government Act and the local organizational and operational procedures as appropriate. The decision is made by the given body in the form of a decree which can certainly be appealed against. In case such decree was made by the subject of the transfer law, the forum of appeal is represented by the council however when the decision was made by the council itself, the truth can be proven through litigation referring to the violation of law. (SZŐRÖS, L. Á. 2006)

In addition to the above, local governments are also involved in public administration matters when the state, instead of establishing local administrative organization systems at high costs, use the self-governments‟ already existing offices to fulfil such tasks.

Ábra

Figure 1 Existing sub-systems and active forces in organizational systems (Own edition after Gáspár, M
Figure 8 The presence of individual and society in human activities (Paasi, A. 2000)
Figure  9  The  system  of  agents  concerning  the  performance  of  settlement  municipalities  (Source:  Gáspár,  M
Figure 22 The statue marking the border of the City of London (Corporation of London) at the bank of the River  Thames
+7

Hivatkozások

KAPCSOLÓDÓ DOKUMENTUMOK

But this is the chronology of Oedipus’s life, which has only indirectly to do with the actual way in which the plot unfolds; only the most important events within babyhood will

This paper investigates the range of management control (MC) tools in use and its relationship to the scope and frequency of information made available to management.. As the work

Its purpose is to obtain long-term competitive advantage to achieve the Cost management is a series of scientific management activities such as forecasting, decision

The organization of the text intő numbered sections within each lesson— a plus compared to the Swedish version of the textbook—facilitates cross-referencing, which in its

Major research areas of the Faculty include museums as new places for adult learning, development of the profession of adult educators, second chance schooling, guidance

The decision on which direction to take lies entirely on the researcher, though it may be strongly influenced by the other components of the research project, such as the

In this article, I discuss the need for curriculum changes in Finnish art education and how the new national cur- riculum for visual art education has tried to respond to

The module describes the management concepts, the short history of management science, the organization, the organization's environment, basic types and the importance