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l ^ D E R A C H I E V E R S AMONG F O R E I G N L A N G U A G E MAJORS:

A SIGN O F L E A R N I N G DISABILLLIES?

K A T A L I N D O R Ó

1. Introduction

I n a t i m e o f ever-changing n a t i o n w i d e educational reforms, universities face t h e challenge o f m o r e diversified student populations a n d the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n e w study programs. I t is a general observation o f instructors that each year a larger p o p u l a t i o n enters higher education unprepared f o r t h e n chosen field o f studies. M a n y o f these students c a n be classified as iinderachievers since t h e y d o n o t meet the requirements:

t h e y w i t h d r a w f r o m o r do n o t pass courses, oftentimes receive l o w grades, therefore, need m o r e t i m e t o finish the p r o g r a m or e v e n t u a l l y drop out o f it. Underachievement m a y have a n u m b e r o f reasons, including, b u t n o t l i m i t e d t o . a m i s m a t c h between student expectations and study requirements, unpieparedness for the g i v e n study prog- r a m , lack o f study strategies, laziness, i n a b i l i t y to manage one's t i m e , o r social a n d financial problems ( C r o s h n g et al. 2 0 0 8 . D o r a 2 0 1 0 , D o r o 2 0 1 1 a , M o x l e y et al. 2 0 0 1 ) . M o r e o v e r , i n higher education, m o r e t h a n i n secondary school, m a n y courses b u i l d o n p r e v i o u s l y acquired subject k n o w l e d g e o r skills. I f smdents lack these, t h e y have less chauce to proceed w i t h t h e n sftidies even i f they do their best h i the n e w courses. A s there is a w i d e r and larger p o o l o f the y o u n g e r generations w h o enter higher education, instructors have t o face n e w types o f student problems: general l o w cognitive abilities, l o w p r o b l e m s o l v i n g skills, undeveloped social skills, t i m e management problems, attendance problems, inability' t o f o l l o w explanations, n o t doing h o m e w o r k , a n d postponing deadlines a n d exams. W e need t o predict, however, that i n some cases specific learning disabilities are responsible f o r student failure rather than lazmess o r unwillingness t o study.

F o r f o r e i g n language majors, w h o c a n y o u t their studies p r e d o m i n a n t l y h i the target language, inadequate screening p r i o r to entering the l u n v e r s i t y often means t h e y e n r o l l m the p r o g r a m w i t h insufficient language p r o f i c i e n c y a n d subject k n o w l e d g e . T h e final e x a m i n a t i o n at secondary school, w i n c h also serves as a n entrance e x a m , has p r o v e n n o t t o be a g o o d indicator o f preparedness for undergraduate smdies i n a target language. Nevertheless, there are signs o f problems that camiot be directly related t o l o w proficiency, t y p i c a l spelling mistakes o r shyness i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h i s study seeks t o answer the questions h o w i t is possible t o recognize learning disabilities ^ L D ) and other special needs conditions o f smdents. w h y i t s h o u l d be important t o have standardized f o i m s o f a c c o m m o d a t i o n t o t h e requirements, a n d h o w smdents themselves perceive then conditions and study expenences.

T h e sections that f o l l o w r e v i e w the educational and research issues o f learning disabilities h i reference t o L D h i higher education a n d f o r e i g n language learning. I t also discusses the specific signs o f study problems that are detectable h i smdent performances at a selected H u n g a r i a n i n s t i m t e o f higher education. T h e n , t w o case

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studies o f students o f E n g l i s h are presented which, are based o n classroom o b s e r v a t i o n i n f o r m a l talks w i t h students, and a structured i n t e r v i e w w i t h them. Conclusions and implications o f this qualitative study are d r a w n at the end o f this research r e p o r t 2. Learning disabilities and study problems

2.1. Definition of key terms

T h e 2 0 1 1 W o r l d R e p o r t o n Disabilities o f the W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n defines specific learning disability as f o l l o w s : " i m p a i r m e n t s i n i n f o r m a t i o n processing resulting h i difficulties h i listening, reasoning, speaking, reading, w r i t i n g , spelhng. or doing mathematical calculations - for example, dyslexia." (p. 3 0 9 ) . N i c h o l s ( 1 9 9 5 ) indicates five m a i n types o r learning disabilities: visual, auditory, m o t o r , organizational and conceptual W h i l e L D s due to v i s u a l and m o t o r i m p a i r m e n t are most o f t h e t i m e easily recognizable, t h e last t w o categories often r e m a i n unrecognized or misinterpreted, and therefore, i t is m o r e difficult t o accommodate the teacliing process t o these students' needs. A d u l t s w i t h L D m a y experience the f o l l o w i n g symptoms; "poor or u n e v e n academic achievement, difficulty w i t h language usage, p o o r organizational and. or sequencing skills, a n d poor or inappropriate social skills" ( N i c h o l s 1995: 36). T h e r e i s a disagreement i n the literature concerning die existence o f a specific foreign language learning disability ( F L L D ) . and m o s t o f the systematic data come f r o m higher education instiUites i n the U n i t e d States offering a c c o m m o d a t i o n or s u b s t i m t i o n for students w h o have difficulties h i passing foreign language courses (e.g. G a n s c h o w e t al. 1998. Hatzes et al. 2 0 0 2 , Sparks 2006).

A l t h o u g h Sparks ( 2 0 0 6 ) argues that there is n o F L L D . people w i t h L D often experience problems w i t h literacy skills, f o l l o w i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l teaching methods a n d materials, w h i c h influences t h e n f o r e i g n language smdies. L e a r n i n g disabilities s h o u l d n o t be confused w i t h inadequate learning styles or strategies, laziness o r l o w l e v e l o f intelligence (Deiihart 2008). M a n y people w i t h L D have average or above average I Q and develop compensation strategies to balance for their weaknesses ( M c N u l r y 2003.

K i r b y et al. 2008). T h e literature also points out that there arc adults, i n c l u d i n g students i n higher education, w l i o prefer t o lnde t h e n disabilities, w h i c h makes i t difficult to estimate the real n u m b e r o f students w i t h L D . H e r m a n and Precel ( 2 0 0 3 ) r e v i e w some o f the late 1990's figures available and report o n a 3 . 8 % L D prevalence a m o n g first-year undergraduate students i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m a n d an even higher and g r o w i n g rate for the U n i t e d States. T h e B r i t i s h D y s l e x i a A s s o c i a t i o n uses the umbrella t e r m 'specific learning difficulties1, m c l u d i n g t h e often co-occiuring dyslexia, dyspraxia, dyscalcuka. attention deficit h y p e r a c t i v i t y disorder ( A D H D ) , a n d a u d i t o r y processing disorder. T h e A s s o c i a t i o n estimates a 4 % prevalence rate f o r severe dyslexia a n d a 1 0 % rate for m i l d dyslexia. G y a r m a t h y ( 2 0 0 7 ) also estimates similar figures for H u n g a r y a m o n g elementary and secondary school students, w i t h figures s h o w i n g a gradual increase. I t is m o s t l i k e l y that smdents w i t h L D enter higher education h i larger numbers than a f e w decades ago w h e n die m o r e t h o r o u g h screening processes selected out the least academically fit.

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2.2. Study problems amoug English language majors

A major r e q u i r e m e n t for f o r e i g n language majors and m i n o r s w o u l d be a n advanced l e v e l o f target language proficiency u p o n entering higher education. Since h i H u n g a r y n o direct screening process is available f o r B A l e v e l applicants, shidents are selected o n the basis o f their secondary school course and final e x a m results. T h i s , h o w e v e r , does n o t give e n o u g h feedback t o students o n h o w t h e y w i l l p e r f o r m i n a p r e d o m i n a n t l y f o r e i g n language m e d i u m education p r o g r a m and does n o t p r o v i d e e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n t o staff m e m b e r s o n the i n c o m i n g students. H i e insufficient screening process a l l o w s for academically unprepared students to enter the system. A t the u n i v e r s i t y under investigation, a m a j o r source o f the students' difficulties is t h e n insufficient p r o f i c i e n c y level m the target language. M a n y undergraduates do not meet the B 2 l e v e l entrance requirement, a l t h o u g h a m o r e advanced l e v e l w o u l d help t h e m i n acquiring academic E n g l i s h and subject k n o w l e d g e h i t h e n linguistics, literature and c u l m r e courses ( D o r a 2 0 0 9 ) . F r o m the instructors' side the f o l l o w i n g p r o b l e m s need some k i n d o f response h i the f o r m o f student guidance o r m o d i f i c a t i o n o f class content: lack o f strategies for r e m e m b e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , preparing for and taking tests, u s i n g reference sources, i n a b i l i t y to follow c l a s s r o o m presentations and discussions, to take notes 0 1 to m a k e good use o f study t i m e and space. E v e n a g l o w i n g n u m b e r o f m o r e advanced students s h o w problems w i t h reading the assigned b o o k chapters and articles. l a c k i n g the analytical skills for processing m f o r m a t i o n and experiencing m a - j o r difficulties i n w r i t i n g a research paper.

S o m e o f the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d problems, h o w e v e r , cannot directly be l i n k e d to o r t h e y go b e y o n d general language proficiency problems. F o r example, w r i t t e n w o r k o f students, i n c l u d m g h o m e assignments, e x a m responses and essays, often s h o w w r i t i n g difficulties, r e w r i t t e n w o r d s , letters added, left out o r m i x e d , and p r o b l e m s w i t h proofreading. Smdents m a y also s h o w signs o f p o o r v i s u a l m e m o r y , s l o w leading rates, t r y i n g to read w o r d b y w o r d or letter b y letter and n o t getting the m e a n i n g o f the text, o r h a v i n g p r o b l e m s w i t h cloze tests. These c o u l d be signs o f dyslexia o r dysgraphia ( N i c h o l s 1995. G y a n n a t h y 2 0 0 4 ) . Others struggle w i t h unpulsiveness, i n a b i l i t y to sit still for 9 0 m i n u t e s , they are a l w a y s late o r do n o t c o m e to class, do n o t meet deadlines for assignments, are unable t o follow o r take active part h i class discussions and seem b o r e d i n class. E s p e c i a l l y i f the s y m p t o m s persist and co-occur, t h e y can be signs o f attention defic h y p e r a c t i v i t y disorder (Sparks et al. 2 0 0 4 ) .

Smdents m i g h t or m i g h t n o t be aware o f t h e n problems and instructors are often n o t able to recognize the signs o r misinterpret t h e m for laziness, u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o cooperate or language proficiency problems. A l s o , m a n y students choose to hide t h e n Learning disabilities o r attention p r o b l e m as t h e y v i e w t h e m as something that should n o t be revealed, but kept h i secret and dealt w i t h o n a n i n d i v i d u a l basis. T h e y m a y e v e n choose t o be labeled as lazy, uiattentive o r unprepared (Denhart 2008). T i n s m a y happen even i f smdents are unable to cope themselves w i t h t h e n learning disabilities and e v e n t u a l l y chop out o f the courses o r the entire program. T i n s observation o f cautiousness to disclose learning disability conditions like dyslexia i s documented i n the literamre r e v i e w e d b y N a l a v a n y and colleagues ( 2 0 1 1 ) h i adults w h o felt e m o t i o n a l

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stress, l o w self-esteem, a n x i e t y o r anger due t o their fear o f perceived stigma o r unsuccessful c o p i n g w i t h t h e n c o n d i t i o n .

W l u l e s o m e k i n d o f a c c o m m o d a t i o n is available f o r students w i t h special needs i n the H u n g a r i a n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n system, the h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n act and the special needs regulations o f l u s h e r e d u c a t i o n mstinrtes s e e m t o focus m o r e o n students w i t h p h y s i c a l i m p a i r m e n t and f e w e r specific r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s are g i v e n as t o w h o s h o u l d b e classified as L D a n d h o w a c c o m m o d a t i o n s h o u l d b e e a r n e d out. T h i s is a t e n d e n c y that exists also elsewhere ( H a t z e s et a l . 2 0 0 2 ) . M o r e o v e r , there c o t d d be a n u m b e r o f smdents w h o receive p a r t i a l o r o v e r a l l e x e m p t i o n s f r o m e v a l u a t i o n i n f o r e i g n language classes i n e l e m e n t a r y and secondary schools ( o f t e n as a result o f diagnosed d y s l e x i a ) , but d o n o t h a v e the same o p t i o n w h e n e n r o l l i n g i n f o r e i g n language studies at a u n i v e r s i t y , and therefore, meet u n e x p e c t e d challenges.

I t is a m a j o r d t f e m m a h o w f o r e i g n language s t u d y p r o g r a m s s h o u l d recognize these smdents a n d t h e n special needs a n d to w h a t extent the r e q u i r e m e n t s can a n d s h o u l d be m o d i f i e d to m e e t t h e i r needs.

T h e need f o r tlus research study is i n l i n e w i t h d e p a r t m e n t a l a n d u n i v e r s i t y goals t o i m p r o v e education, discover the reason f o r a c h i e v e m e n t gaps o f smdents a n d assist t h e m h i b e c o m i n g m o r e successful smdents or. i f necessary, t o redirect t h e m t o w a r d s other fields o f studies m o r e suitable for t h e m .

3. The empirical study

T h e p i u p o s e o f this q u a l i t a t i v e case sUidy w a s t o gather i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m smdents w i t h signs o f L D i n o r d e r to e x p l o r e possible courses o f a c t i o n to i m p r o v e student p e r f o r m a n c e h i a f o r e i g n language p r o g r a m .

3.1. Participants

T h e specific s t u d y p o p u l a t i o n w a s t w o students o f E n g l i s h w h o agreed to discuss t h e n study experiences w i t h the a u t h o r o f tliis article, w h o served as t h e n teacher i n s m a l l g r o u p senhnars. Students w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as possible special needs smdents as the course proceeded because t h e y s h o w e d signs o f h a v i n g m a j o r difficulties i n k e e p i n g u p w i t h the rest o f the group.

Student A w a s a m a l e student i n the first year o f his B A l e v e l E n g l i s h smdies. w h i l e student B w a s a m a l e sttident h i Ins last year o f the 5-year M A l e v e l E n g l i s h smdies.

3.2. Methodology and procedure

A q u a l i t a t i v e m u l t i p l e case study approach w a s adopted for this i n q u i r y , i n c l u d i n g c l a s s r o o m o b s e r v a t i o n , analysis o f w r i t t e n w o r k done b y the participants, h r f o n n a l talks w i t h t h e m a n d a seirri-structiiied i n t e r v i e w . T h e r a t i o n a l e for c h o o s i n g m u l t i p l e data c o l l e c t i o n m e t h o d s i s t h a t the q u a l i t a t i v e data set a n d results p r o v i d e a general picture o f the research p r o b l e m , n a m e l y the s i t u a t i o n that p o t e n t i a l l y L D smdents face.

T h e y are labeled as ' p o t e n t i a l l y L D ' as n o f o r m a l diagnosis is available f o r t h e m but are i d e n t i f i e d t h r o u g h c o u i s e w o r k as students w h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e o r academic

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a c h i e v e m e n t m a k e t h e m distinct fioru other smdents w i t h general language p r o f i c i e n c y o r m o t i v a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s .

T h e p r i m a r y data c o l l e c t i o n t e c l m i q u e w a s a n i n - d e p t h s e r n i - s U u c m r e d i n t e r v i e w e a r n e d o u t i n d i v i d u a l l y w i t h the t w o subjects, i n a quiet r o o m a n d recorded for later transcription. T h e participants w e r e asked t o g i v e consent to r e c o r d t h e n answers, a n d t h e y w e r e h i i b r m e d p r i o r t o t h e interview- about the types o f q u e s t i o n asked. S m d e u t B w a s g i v e n t h e list o f questions b e f o r e h a n d i n order t o compensate f o r his a t t e n t i o n p r o b l e m s . T h e i n t e r v i e w s w e r e d o n e h i H u n g a r i a n , the n a t i v e language o f the participants, and i n c l u d e d questions f r o m the f o l l o w i n g m a i n areas;

1. general experience at the university

H o w can y o u s u m m a r i z e y o i u s m d y experiences at the t m i v e r s i f y ? W h a t l a n d o f p r o b l e m s have y o u e n c o u n t e r e d1 D o y o u proceed w i t h y o u r smdies s l o w e r t h a n e x p e c t e d1

2. following courses, taking exams

C a n y o u concentrate for 9 0 m i n u t e s i n class? C a n v o u take notes w h e n v o u u n d e r s t a n d the i n s t r u c t o r s ' e x p l a n a t i o n0 D o y o u prefer w r i t t e n or o r a l e x a m s '1 3. doing assignments

W h a t m a k e s h o m e w o r k difficult'1 D o y o u read the assigned r e a d m e materials'1 D o y o u h a v e reaclmg/spelfmgAviithig p r o b l e m s i n H u n g a r i a n or h i E n g l i s h ? H o w l o n g does i t take f o r y o u to w r i t e a one-page essay at h o m e ? W h a t c o m p e n s a t i o n sUategies d o y o u have t o o v e r c o m e balance for y o u r p r o b l e m s ?

4. feedback from othei's

H a v e y o u n o t i c e d that y o u are b e l i i n d y o u r peers or d o n o t m e e t expectations'7 h i w h a t w:ays? H a v e y o u r m s t m c t o r s / p e e r s ; f a m i l y m e m b e r s n o t i c e d a n d t o l d y o u that y o u are b e h i n d or have special needs? H a v e y o u ever asked f o r special a c c o m m o d a t i o n o r h e l p f r o m y o u r instructors (extra p r e p a r a t i o n t i m e , c h a n g i n g deadlines a n d changing tasks, a s k i n g for notes, extra t u t o r i n g ) ?

5. prexious studies

D i d y o u have extra difficulties h i a n y o f the classes h i e l e m e n t a r y and secondary school'1 W e r e y o u g i v e n e x e m p t i o n h i a n y o f the classes h i e l e m e n t a r y a n d secondary school?

6. diagnosis vs. seIf-ide}itification

H a v e y o u ever been diagnosed w i t h l e a r n i n g difficulty, a t t e n t i o n deficit, dyslexia. e t c .n H a v e y o u ever had the f e e l i n g that y o u m i g h t h a v e a n y o f these?

T h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f the t w o smdents was also observed f o r a semester i n s m a l l s m d y groups. F o r smdeut A d h s w a s d o n e h i a language p r o f i c i e n c y class that i n v o l v e d b o t h o r a l a n d w r i t t e n assignments, r e g u l a r v o c a b u l a r y tests a n d a reading j o u r n a l Student B w a s observed m a n applied l i n g u i s t i c s s e m h i a r w h i c h r e q u i r e d h i m to f o l l o w7 t h e instructors" explanations aided w i t h P o w e r P o i n t presentations a n d short videos, r e a d i n g a n d c o m m e n t i n g h i w r i t i n g a n d i n speech o n research articles, b e i n g a n active participant i n short discussions i n E n g l i s h o n c l a s s r o o m topics and w r i t i n g a 6 - 1 0 - page l o n g research report.

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4. Results and discussion

T h i s s e c t i o n r e v i e w s t h e m a j o r findings f r o m t h e data c o l l e c t i o n f o r t h e t w o p a r t i c i p a t i n g students separately, t h e n d i s c u s s i o n o f the data f o l l o w s .

4.1. Student A

H e w a s n o t i c e d b y t h e researcher i n the s e m i n a r g r o u p as a v e r y q u i e t student w h o w a s u n a b l e to c a n y o n c o n v e r s a t i o n s i n E n g l i s h w i t h I n s classmates w h e n d i s c u s s i o n tasks w e r e g i v e n t o The g r o u p . T h i s h a p p e n e d w h e n S t u d e n t A w a s p a i r e d u p w i t h a n y o f his peers. H e s h o w e d d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e t r i e v i n g e v e n h i g h - f r e q u e n c y w o r d s , n a m e d target w o r d s h i H u n g a r i a n o r s a i d n o t h i n g a t a l l . h i w r i t i n g , h e s h o w e d serious s p e l l i n g m i s t a k e s , u n t y p i c a l o f o t h e r learners, such as o m i t t i n g a n d m u r i n g letters, f r e q u e n t l y c r o s s i n g o u t t h e n r e w r i t i n g the same w o r d s h i a m o d i f i e d o r u n m o d i f i e d f o r m , a n d u s i n g the h y p e r c o i r e c t i v e w o r d f i n a l -s (e.g. c l i i l d i e n ) . H e also u s e d a m i x t u r e o f l o w e r a n d u p p e r case letters i n tests a n d h a d serious p r o b l e m s w i t h c l o z e tests. H e w r o t e v e r y s h o r t h o m e w o r k essays f u l l o f g r a m m a t i c a l , s t r u c t u r a l a n d s p e l l i n g m i s t a k e s . A c c o m m o d a t i o n f o r h i m w a s m a d e h i the f o r m o f s m a l l a d j u s t m e n t s , s u c h as p a r i n g h i m u p w i t h the i n s t r u c t o r d u r i n g s o m e o f the d i s c u s s i o n tasks i n class, accepting shorter essays, g i v i n g extra feedback, g i v i n g o p p o r t u n i t y t o t a k e m i s s e d tests, d i s c u s s i n g h i s needs a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n strategies. T h e s e a n d t h e constant e n c o u r a g e m e n t s e e m e d t o h a v e h a d a p o s i t i v e effect o n h i s class p e r f o r m a n c e , a l t h o u g h he w a s n o t able r e a c h t h e desired l e v e l .

D u r i n g the i n t e r v i e w he a d i n i t t e d h a v i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s m classes a n d p r o c e e d i n g w i t h his studies s l o w e r t h a n expected. T o balance f o r h i s l a n g u a g e p r o b l e m s , he h a d s t u d i e d E n g l i s h f o r 3—4 b o m s p e r d a y o n top o f d o u i g h o m e w o r k a s s i g n m e n t s . T i n s h a d l e d t o his c o m p l e t e e x h a u s t i o n b y the second semester, h i w h i c h h e r e a l i z e d t h i s w a s n o t a n adequate c o m p e n s a t i o n strategy, as I n s tiredness r e s u l t e d h i Ins c o m p l e t e i n a b i l i t y t o f o l l o w classes. H i s i n s t r u c t o r s h a d t o l d h i m he w a s n o t m e e t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s , w h i c h w a s also e v i d e n t f r o m Ins grades. H e also r e p o r t e d , t h o u g h , t h a t t h e feedback g i v e n b y s o m e o f t h e i n s t r u c t o r s w a s v e r y d i s c o i i r a g i n g a n d h e o f t e n felt helpless a n d lost m o t i v a t i o n t o practice E n g l i s h o n Ins o w n . T h e m s t r u c t i o n g i v e n i n classes t o d o i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g or c h e c k p r o b l e m a t i c language e l e m e n t s d i d n o t w o r k f o i h i m as he w a s u n a b l e to i d e n t i f y the p r o b l e m a t i c e l e m e n t s a n d o r l o o k t h e m u p i n sources. H i s r e p o r t o n n o t b e i n g able t o f o l l o w 9 0 - m i n u t e classes c o i i f i r m e d the researcher's o b s e r v a t i o n . H e a d d e d that s m d e u t s w e r e n o t g i v i n g feedback o r s n i d y support t o e a c h o t h e r a n d c o n c l u d e d that " e v e r y o n e is s t r u g g l i n g o n h i s o w n " . N e v e r t h e l e s s , as h e wras u n a b l e t o f o l l o w classes o r t o t a k e notes, h e r e l i e d o n h i s p e e r s ' notes. I t t o o k l i i m t w o h o u r s t o w r i t e a one-page e s s a y a t h o m e , w h i c h h e f o u n d i n s u f f i c i e n t , t h e r e f o r e adapted the strategy o f q u i c k e r fiee-writing. H e a d i n i t t e d p r o d u c i n g a great n u m b e r o f g r a m m a r e r r o r s t h i s w a y . b u t a d d e d that the earlier, s l o w e r m e t h o d o f w r i t i n g h a d n ' t led t o better r e s u l t s either. W h e n asked w h v h e w a s w r i t i n g s u c h short essavs a n d p r o d u c i n g m a n y e r r o r s , h e r e p l i e d t h a t h e w a s n ' t a " w r i t i n g t y p e " . S h n i l a r e x p l a n a t i o n s o r excuses w e r e g i v e n a b o u t n o t d o i n g assigned l e a d i n g f o r class ( " l a c k o f t i m e " ) o r h a v i n g b l o c k s d u r i n g o r a l language p r o d u c t i o n tasks ( " l a c k o f

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v o c a b u l a r y " ) . T h e s e s e e m e d To be a v o i d a n c e strategies a n d n o t t h e r e a l causes o f liis p r o b l e m s .

H e r e p o r t e d o n h a v i n g t r i e d o u t c e r t a i n strategies f o r v o c a b u l a r y l e a r n i n g , a n d speeding u p o r a l a n d w r i t t e n p r o d u c t i o n , s o m e o f w h i c h p r o d u c e d results, w h i l e others n o t . O n e o f The m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g a n d f a i l e d m e t h o d s w a s w h a t h e c a l l e d ' d r a w e r Technique1. A s h e c o n s i d e r e d h u n s e l f a v i s u a l t y p e o f learner, h e t r i e d rliis m e r h o d . w h i c h i n v o l v e s the m i a g m i n g o f a chest o f d r a w e r s w h e r e y o u p u t d i f f e r e n t sentences To r e m e m b e r t h e m . W h e n y o u o p e n The d r a w e r , die i n f o r m a r i o n i s There The w a y y o u p u t i t i n . S t u d e n t A r e p o r t e d that w h e n h e o p e n e d The i m a g i n a r y d r a w e r s , s i n g l e letters a n d p u n c t u a t i o n m a r k s w e r e floating o u t . w i n c h m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e T O reconstruct The o r i g i n a l TexT.

D a t a g a i n e d d u r i n g rliis i n t e r v i e w are h i l i n e w i t h t h e observaTions m a d e i n class a n d d u r i n g the r e a d i n g o f The student's texts. H e s e e m e d t o s h o w a v a r i e t y o f d i f f i c u l t i e s b o t h w i t h o r a l a n d w r i t t e n language use i n E n g l i s h . H e r e p o r t e d t o b e a w a r e o f s o m e o f h i s w e a k n e s s e s a n d h a d t r i e d v a r i o u s c o m p e n s a t i o n strategies, b u t m o s t o f these h a d f a i l e d . H i s l o w l e v e l o f g e n e r a l E n g l i s h p r o f i c i e n c y , t h e s l o w i m p r o v e m e n t i n Ins reading, w i l t i n g , l i s t e n i n g a n d s p e a k i n g s k i l l s suggested that he h a d l i t t l e success h i a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t i n e v e n t h e f i r s t - y e a r courses. A l t h o u g h he w a s w i l l i n g t o a n d h a d t r i e d t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r h i s p r o b l e m s , h e w a s u n a b l e t o m e e t the r e q u i r e m e n t s .

4.2. Student B

S t u d e n t B s t o o d o u t o f t h e g r o u p as The late c o m e r , the o n l y o n e n o t t a k i n g notes a n d s e e m i n g l y n o t p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n e i t h e r To t h e i n s t r u c t o r ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o r t h e P o w e r P o i n t slides. I f h e t u r n e d i n w e e k l y a s s i g n m e n t s ( s u m m a r y o f a n d c o m m e n t s o n r e s e a r c h articles, i n d i v i d u a l tasks), t h e w r i t t e n w o r k w a s m u c h s h o r t e r Than expected, b u t l a n g u a g e - w i s e a n d c o n t e n t - w i s e g o o d . A f t e r the first f e w w e e k s h e asked f o r The P o w q t P o i n t shdes. w i n c h w e r e t h a n m a d e a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l the students i n t h e course.

A s o t h e r ' p o t e n t i a l l y L D ' students w e r e also i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e class, h o m e w o r k a s s i g n m e n t s i n c l u d e d a v a r i e t y o f sources ( o r a l , w r i t t e n a n d v i s u a l ) t o balance f o r p o s s i b l e r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g p r o b l e m s : f u r t h e r m o r e , r e a d i n g i n class w a s l i m i t e d t o s h o r t t e x t s f o l l o w e d b y pah" o r g r o u p discussions o n t h e c o n t e n t , a n d i n d i v i d u a l a c c o m m o d a t i o n f o r t h e final w r i t t e n p r o j e c t wTas o f f e r e d . S i n c e s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n needs o f u n i v e r s i t y students w a s o n e o f t h e c o u r s e Topics, S t u d e n t B discussed w i t h t h e researcher tire o p t i o n o f w r i t i n g a b o u t l u s o w n e x p e n e n c e s as a f o l l o w - u p o f t h e i n t e r v i e w h e w a s a s k e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n .

D u r i n g i n t e r v i e w a n d i n t h e f o l l o w - u p essay l i e n o t e d t h a t I n s p r o b l e m s h a d b e c o m e m o r e d i s a b l i n g as h e w a s p r o g r e s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m . F o r y e a r s h e h a d n o t r e a l i z e d h e h a d special needs, r e l i e d o n w h a t w a s h e a r d h i class, b u t w a s u n a b l e t o

s t u d y f r o m b o o k s . H e w r o t e " I w a s b o m i n a f a m i l y w h o t h o u g h I w a s special. I w a s . b u t p r o b a b l y n o t i n t h e w a y t h e y t h o u g h t " .

H e w a s l a b e l e d as a g o o d , b u t i m s b e h a v n r g student, w i n c h w a s t o l e r a t e d m the n o n - state s c h o o l s he attended. E v e n at the u n i v e r s i t y , as h e w r o t e , h e felt a n average student w h o d e v e l o p e d s u r v i v a l t e c h n i q u e s as a r e a c t i o n to the g r o w i n g challenges. H e

3 9 4

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l a r d y s t u d i e d f o r classes a n d e x a m s , a n d r e l i e d o n the n o t e s o f peers o r those o f the i n s t r u c t o r s . A l t o g e t h e r h e h a d g o o d E n g l i s h s k i l l s , b u t i t t o o k M m m u c h l o n g e r t h a n others t o d o readings o r w r i t e l o n g e r texts. H e a d m i t t e d n o t b e i n g able t o r e a d l o n g a s s i g n m e n t s , o r writing reviews: m s t e a d h e a d o p t e d t h e t e c h n i q u e o f r e a d i n g thesis statements, l i i g h l i g h t i n g k e y w o r d s , a n d r e l y i n g o n these d u r i n g class discussions. A s he w7as u n a b l e to prepare f o r e x a m s , h e cheated at t i m e s . . . w h e n there w a s n o other c h o i c e . I cheated o n the e x a m s w i t h a p u r e s o u l , because k n e w71 c o u l d h a v e n e v e r l e a r n e d that m a t e r i a l , a n d that I would p r o b a b l y n e v e r n e e d t o use i t h i the fiiture".

H e b e l i e v e d h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s h a d n o t b e e n r e c o g n i z e d b y i n s t r u c t o r s a n d peers, and e v e n b y lümself f o r years. O n l y h i t h e f i n a l y e a r o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y d i d h e n o t i c e

"strange t h i n g s " about l i i m s e l f . H e w r o t e ''as u n t i l die last 1-2 years. I d i d n o t t h i n k that I m a y h a v e l e a r n i n g i m p a i r m e n t s , i t w a s n e v e r a n issue, a n d e v e n n o w . n o o n e realizes that I h a v e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n s t u d y i n g , p r o b a b l y because t h r o u g h t h e years, I l e a r n e d h o w t o present o r e x p l a i n m y s h o r t c o m h i g s e v e n t o m y s e l f , a n d t h e m o s t I u s u a l l y n e e d t o d o i s a s k teachers t o d e l a y deadlines f o r m e . w i n c h t h e y u s u a l l y d o w i t h o u t a s k i n g w h y . " H e h a d n e v e r b e e n tested o r d i a g n o s e d w i t h a n y L D . a n d p r o b l e m s h a d m u l t i p l i e d as t h e s t u d y d e m a n d s got o v e r t l y c h a l l e n g i n g f o r h i m . H e i d e n t i f i e d h i m s e l f as a p e r s o n w i t h a t t e n t i o n d e f i c i t a n d w i t h l e a n i h i g i m p a i l m e n t s .

H e also c h o s e n o t t o disclose h i s weaknesses t o others, as h e w o r d e d " I n e v e r t o l d a teacher a b o u t m y u n p a n r i i e n t s . a n d n o t because I find i t a shame, b u t s i m p l y , because I t h i n k I w o u l d f e e l a s h a m e d i f I h a d t o d o less t h a n others f o r the s a m e grade. F d r a t h e r get a w o r s e grade o r b e t h o u g h t t o be l a z y o r a l a y a b o u t , h i s t e a d o f b e h i g treated as a sUident w i t h s o m e k i n d o f handicap, w h o needs h e l p a n d " s p e c i a l " t r e a r r n e n f \

H e h a d also adopted w h a t h e c a l l e d ' s t u v i v a l t e c h n i q u e s ' , s u c h as f o c u s i n g o n the task he w7as d o i n g a n d e x c l u d i n g e v e r y t h i n g else, i n i a g h i i n g a l o v e d p e r s o n as a reader f o r Ins assignments, a n d f o r c i n g l i i m s e l f to k e e p To deadlines.

4.3. Discussion of the results

T h e purpose o f this s t u d y w a s t o describe the s t u d y experiences, areas o f difficulties, strategies f o r academic c o p i n g , a n d s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t w o p o t e n t i a l l y L D students.

DaTa o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h s e m i - s t n i c t t u e d i n t e r v i e w s w i t h the participants p r o v i d e e m p i r i c a l support f o r the a u t h o r ' s o b s e r v a t i o n o f special needs students n i courses. T h e f i n d i n g regarding students' n e e d f o r s o m e a c c o m m o d a t i o n h i terms o f assignments, tasks a n d deadlines can be v i e w e d i n l i g h t o f H e r m a n and Precel's ( 2 0 0 3 ) r e p o r t o n the academic strategies o f u n i v e r s i t y students w i t h a n d w i t h o u t L D . B o t h students w e r e able t o r e p o r t o n s o m e o f t h e n m a j o r p r o b l e m s a n d The u n u s u a l s u r v i v a l techniques a n d c o m p e n s a t o r y skills used. N e i t h e r o f t h e t w o students, h o w e v e r , c a n b e considered a c a d e m i c a l l y successful w i t h o u t adequate s t u d y and l i t e r a c y skills. I t is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e here that S n i d e n t A w a s unable t o compensate f o r I n s p r o b l e m s i n l a c k o f a g o o d E n g l i s h p r o f i c i e n c y as a basis, w h e r e a s Student B c o u l d s u r v i v e challenges a n d e v e n lüde Iiis p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e h e l p o f h i s advanced language skills. T i n s also i m p l i e s that while S n i d e n t A c o u l d b e i d e n t i f i e d b y a m u l t i p l e o f instructors as a w e a k smdent. Smclent B w a s able t o pass i m u o T i c e d o r mislabeled, h i l i g h t o f these results, i t i s v e r y m u c h

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questionable, h o w these a n d s i m i l a r students are able t o p r o c e e d w i t h t h e n s m d i e s w i t h o u t s o m e m i n o r or m a j o r a c c o m m o d a t i o n o f f e r e d t o t h e m

I t is a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o p o s e t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s : W h o s e t a s k is i t t o i d e n t i f y a n d assist f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e m a j o r s w i t h l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s ? D o t h e y k n o w a b o u t t h e n i m p a i r m e n t s , a n d i f yes. are They w i l l i n g t o a d m i t t h e m ? D o t h e y w a n T To b e i d e n t i f i e d a n d labeled? T o w h a r exTenT c a n They c o p e w i T h t h e challenges o f a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e m a j o r e v e n w i t h a d d i t i o n a l h e l p o r g o o d strategies'1 W h o s e f a i l u r e i s i t i f They f a i l ? A n d finally, h o w c a n i n s t r u c t o r s , w h o are n o t t r a i n e d t o i d e n t i t y ' L D . prepare a n d b e p r e p a r e d f o r a d i v e r s e student p o p u l a t i o n t h a t i n c l u d e s students w i t h L D9 T h e s e a n d r e l a t e d q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d b e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e v i e w e d b e f o r e a r a t i o n a l e f o r r e c o m m e n d e d a n d c o m m o n l y accepted a c c o m m o d a t i o n c a n b e p r o v i d e d t o students.

I n d i v i d u a l i z e d t u t o r i n g a n d s m a l l m o d i f i c a t i o n o f tasks w e r e d o n e b y The researcher f o r The p a r t i c i p a n t s , b u t diese c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d a r e g u l a r o r c o m m o n l y accepted p r a c t i c e o r o p t i o n t h a t is a v a i l a b l e i f l a r g e r p r e v a l e n c e rates o f L D students appear o n t o p o f n o n - L D s m d e n t s w i t h differeriT l a n g u a g e a n d academic d i f f i c i i h i e s .

W h e n students are n o t s u c c e s s f u l l y m e e t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t . The focus o f t e n n u n s To i n s t r u c t o r s , w h o e x p e r i e n c e m o r e pressure i n t o d a y ' s a c a d e n h c e n v i r o n m e n t f r o m parents, e d u c a t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s , a n d d e c i s i o n m a k e r s t o t e a c h a n d prepare a l l students f o r e x a m s . T h e g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f d r o p o u t s a n d t h e pressure t o k e e p h i t h e s y s t e m e v e n t h e a c a d e m i c a l l y u n f i t suggest that t e a c l i i n g practices o f years past m u s t b e changed. B e f o r e d o i n g s o . h o w e v e r , i t i s necessary t o d i s c o v e r instiucTors".

s m d e n t s ' . p o l i c y m a k e r s ' a n d u n i v e r s i t y s t a f f m e m b e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . A g e n e r a l f u s t - y e a r p o p u l a t i o n o f E n g l i s h m a j o r s has b e e n f o u n d n o t to b e able To m a k e g o o d j u d g m e n t s a b o u t T h e n l e v e l o f p r e p a r e d n e s s f o r T h e n s m d i e s o r seek h e l p w h e n n e e d e d ( D 0 1 6 2 0 1 l b ) . A l l students, i n c l u d i n g t h o s e w i t h L D o r o t h e r a c a d e m i c - r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s , s h o u l d be e n c o u r a g e d t o b e s e l f - r e g u l a t e d l e a r n e r s w f i o are able t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e n n e e d s , s t u d y goals, a n d use adequate s t u d y strategies ( Z i m m e r m a t m

1 9 9 0 ) . T i n s i s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n l i g h t o f t h e results that sUidents are u n w i l l i n g t o disclose t h e n p r o b l e m s , p r o b a b l y f o r fear o f b e i n g l a b e l e d a n d s t i g m a t i z e d . T h e y s e e m To p r e f e r t h e p r o t e c t i v e m a s s o f peers, e v e n w h e n u n a b l e t o c o p e o n t h e n o w n w i t h Their f a i l u r e s .

I t also n e e d s To b e c o n s i d e r e d a n d c l e a r l y stated that a n y a c c o m n i o d a T i o n t o The r e q u i r e m e n t s s h o u l d n o r restdt h i the c o m p r o m i s e o f a c a d e m i c standards, l o s s o f c r e d i b i l i t y f o r t h e hisrrucTor. The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a c e r t a i n i n e q u i t y o f t r e a t m e n t b e t w e e n student p e r f o r m a n c e s o r t h e v i c t u n i z a t i o n o f s m d e n t s .

A m a j o r s h o r t c o m i n g o f t h i s s t u d y c o m e s f r o m t h e i n a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a l i z e The f i n d i n g s To l a r g e r student p o p u l a t i o n s . Y e t . t h e y show" s u l k i n g e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s m d e n t s w i t h m a j o r a n d c o - o c c u r r i n g p r o b l e m s that g o b e y o n d t h o s e o f t h e i r n o n - L D peers a n d w h i c h h i n d e r t h e n c h a n c e f o r a c a d e m i c success.

5. Conclusion and implications

T h i s s t u d y discussed t h e n e e d f o r a better u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e m a j o r s w h o show* s e r i o u s signs o f u n d e r p e r f o r m a n c e c o m p a r e d t o t h e n peers. I t w a s s h o w n , t h r o u g h the e x a m p l e o f t w o students, Thar s o m e o f The p o t e n t i a l l y L D s m d e n t s c a n b e

3 9 6

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detected o n the basis o f t h e i r class p e r f o r m a n c e , b u t i t r e m a i n s a q u e s t i o n t o b e s o l v e d h o w t o a p p r o a c h these students, h o w t o raise awareness a m o n g staff, a n d h o w t o a c c o m m o d a t e r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h o u t j e o p a r d i z i n g academic standards. I t w a s also p o m t e d o u t that m o s t o f the special needs students a r e r e l u c t a n t t o a s k f o r h e l p o r a c c o i m n o d a t i o n . o r d o n o t e v e n k n o w h o w t o m o d i f y t h e n o wrn s t u d y suategies a n d m e t h o d s . T h e c u r r e n t g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h o f n o a c c o i m n o d a t i o n seems t o m e e t b o t h sides" i m m e d i a t e m t e r e s t . n a m e l y t h e s m d e n t s ' l u i w i l l i n g n e s s t o disclose p r o b l e m s a n d t h e a c a d e m i c s ' unpreparedness to c o p e w i t h the s i m a t i o n . T h i s , h o w e v e r , is n o t a l o n g - t e r m strategy t o b e adopted, as p r o f e s s i o n a l s m e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d search f o r a c o m m o n a p p r o a c h t o assist learners w i t h special needs.

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